The Trinity Test Atomic Bomb Detonation (1945)

 

The Trinity test was the first time a nuclear weapon was detonated. This was truly the beginning of the Atomic Age. Humankind had unleashed nuclear power and would grapple with the consequences of nuclear arms races. Manipulation nuclear fission and chain reactions created one of the most lethal weapons in the world. After the detonation, public health was negatively effected. When an atomic bomb is used nuclear fallout remains. The residents of New Mexico close to the radius of detonation found radioactive debris in crops, land, and water. There remains footage of the detonation, which provides a glimpse into the power of the explosion. When citizens realized the disturbance, the US government lied and said it was accident. No attempts were made for evacuation or warnings. The increase in radiation resulted in higher rates of cancer and infant deaths. Further damage to the environment came from uranium mining. As more nuclear tests were being done during the Cold War, fallout spread throughout Nevada. Even if a person was not vaporized by an atomic bomb survivors would fall victim to disease.  

Alcor Life Extension Advances Cryonics

 

Alcor Life Extension  is reported to have 199 people in cryonic preservation. Most of the people who decided to undergo this procedure were diagnosed with severe illnesses that do not have a cure. The idea is to keep them in cryonic preservation until biomedical science finds solutions. The process is not just a simple freezing of a human body. The body is placed in an ice bath. Then a CPR device is used to ensure proper blood circulation. Medications are also applied for the purpose of cell protection. The bodies are in reality are not frozen, but vitrified. The people are contained in liquid nitrogen.  Preventing blood clots and abnormal blood pressure are the major objectives to make the process successful. There are concerns about cryonic preservation. The bioethics make critics wonder  if some are attempting to attain immortality. The people in the facility are technically deemed legally dead. Biologically, they are not. Cryonics from this perspective seems like inducing  the ill into a coma or long slumber. The process has not shown to be effective. Then what must be considered is that the cures for cancer or ALS might never be found. That means the people preserved would just remain that way . Alcor Life Extension will not be in business forever. The restoration of consciousness and acclimating the revived could be more difficult than anticipated. Cryonic preservation as a biomedical technology would be limited. However, if it could reach a higher  of advancement  it could be applied to space travel. This could be a solution to space exploration to galaxies lightyears away. Preserving astronauts would make space travel much easier for long missions. Knowledge is limited  about the long term effects of cryonic preservation. At the moment it is not a practical solution to biomedical conditions or the challenges of space travel.   

The Large Hadron Collider Is Back In Operation

 

After three years of shutdown for upgrades the Large Hadron  Collider is back in operation. This is the world's largest and most powerful particle accelerator. Located in Switzerland, this technology allows physicists to explore the subatomic universe. Further experiments might reveal information about dark energy and dark matter. The Large Hadron Collider accelerates particles to the speed of light. These collisions that happen provide information about subatomic particles. The Higgs boson was verified by the Large Hadron Collider in 2012. What was once only predicted by mathematics can be confirmed by technology and experimentation. The upgrades could result in the discovery of more particles. The injectors got improvements. This part of the particle accelerator feeds beams of particles into the collider. The facility requires a large number of superconducting magnets. This helps harnessing large amounts of energy and with movement of protons for collision. The new engineering upgrades means that the name will be changed. More work is planned for 2028. Then LHC will be called High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider. The Large Hadron Collider has gone through a series of runs and upgrades. During each hiatus more improvements are made. The operation periods include Run 1 ( 2009-2013), Run 2 (2015-2018), and currently Run 3. The Large Hadron Collider is under the supervision of the European Council for Nuclear Research(CERN) . There is speculation that new experiments with the Large Hadron Collider  could discover another fundamental force. 

Lasting Machine Schematic (1883)

 

The lasting machine was an invention created  by Jan Ernst Matzeliger (1852-1889) . This machine  brought major changes to the production of shoes. Matzeliger had his lasting machine patented in 1883. The image above is the original schematic. Jan Matzeliger was born in Suriname and later emigrated to the United States. At an early age he demonstrated talent for mechanics. His interest grew leading him to make inventions of his own. One problem in the 19th century was the production of shoes. Shoes were at a time made by hand. To replicate the same size a mold had to be from either stone or wood. That was known as a last. The last would be the basis for the shoe size and shape. The biggest challenge was joining the soles to the upper shoe. The machine that Jan Matzeliger created was able to solve the problem of slow shoe production. Now a shoe producer could produce more in a day and not be concerned about errors in the molding of the shoes. Matzeliger did most of his engineering work in Lynn, Massachusetts. He moved there in 1877  with an interest in the town's growing shoe industry. Starting off as an apprentice, Cordwainers are shoemakers that produce them from leather. Matzeliger noted that the lasting process was not as efficient as it could be. Using his skills that he gained as a mechanic, began building a machine to aid in production. Prior to coming to America Jan Matzeliger worked as a mechanic on a Dutch East Indies merchant ship. The lasting machine that he made reduced the cost of footwear. This enabled more shoes to be produced. A total of  700 pairs of shoes could be made in a day. Jan Matzeliger lasting machine became a major success. The Consolidated Lasting Machine Company was formed in 1889 with Matzeliger having a large portion of the stock. Unfortunately, he did not live to enjoy his success contracting tuberculosis. Jan Matzeliger continues to be remembered as one of the important black inventors. Without the lasting machine modern shoe production would not have been possible.    

The Rise of Carbon Capture Plants

 

Carbon emissions have become a growing concern for safety of the environment. The exacerbation of the green house effect can cause an increase of the Earth's temperature. The challenge of climate change requires innovative solutions. What is developing is the rise of carbon capture plants. Iceland activated one of the world's biggest carbon capture plants on September 8,  2021. The Orca carbon capture plant takes CO2 and seals it underground. This becomes counted as a negative emission. The problem is that more of these plants would have to be constructed to make a significant change. Every nation  would need one to collectively bring down CO2 emissions. Only 15 direct air capture plants are in operation . The technology is new, so there needs to be more examination of its effectiveness. The Orca plant uses a combination of fans and filters to capture carbon dioxide. The CO2 is mixed with water. When pushed underground it will become rock.  A question does remain of the long term effects of this. Consultations with petrologists and geologists should be done before embarking on larger projects. From a perspective of ecology, carbon capture plants could be beneficial. A combination of planting more trees, investment in renewable energy, and creation of new technology can reduce extreme climate change. Carbon capture plants will become a priority in the coming decades.  

Isaac Asimov Explains The Three Laws of Robotics

 Isaac Asimov was a biochemist and science fiction writer who developed the idea of the three laws of robotics. This came from on of his short stories "Runaround." The first law is that a robot cannot harm a person. That means either by physical violence or inaction. The second law states that robots should obey the orders of humans. The only exception is if this could violate the first law. The third law requires a robot to protect its own existence. The third law should not violate the second law. Although these laws were created in science fiction, the can be applied to future developments in artificial intelligence. The fear is that technology masters so much learning and intelligence it could be a threat to human existence. Robots may be too simple currently to understand human language for commands. However, robotics are are being used in surgery and manufacturing. The advancement of computing power will at some point enable the creation of an artificially intelligent robot. Designing a program for the software it will use would need to be governed by Asimov's  three laws of robotics.  

The Challenges of Rapid Technological and Scientific Advancement

Science and technology has built the modern world. Within a century modes of transportation, communication, and access to knowledge have vastly increased. The rapid advancement of science and technology that occurred in the 20th century will continue into the next, but there are some unintended consequences that come with such a change. Some changes may even be potential threats or dangerous. Human civilization has reached a point that it can manipulate the environment, produce substances that do not occur in nature, and even alter its own biology. Science and technology has provided multiple benefits to society, there has been negative repercussions from its misuse. The development of weapons of war, environmental destruction, and the possibility of eugenic transhumanism are the products of the abuse of scientific knowledge. What should be the march of progress may become a dystopian science fiction nightmare. Only with proper regulation and understanding of science and technology can prevent such a negative outcomes . The public requires a greater comprehension of  technology and the scientific fields to better navigate a constantly changing world. The entire globe has been transformed by discoveries related to physics, biology, astronomy, and engineering. Knowledge progresses so fast along with computing power, that artificial intelligence is in reach. What must be prevented is humanity inducing its own demise through the power it has amassed from technological advancement. The challenges of scientific and technological advancement are the ethics of use, the negative impact of rapid change in society, and the possible use of scientism for nefarious purposes.  

      Engineering has produced many marvels . The applied science also created more lethal weapons. Nuclear weapons and there  proliferation has been a global problem. The only time nuclear weapons were used in combat was in World War II. Japan's cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki sustained the world's first nuclear attacks. Seeing the devastation these weapons caused made other countries want to acquire them.   The Cold War was period in which the likelihood of nuclear war was high. Even though it was avoided and the Soviet Union collapsed nations still seek to expand arsenals. The United States, Russia, the UK, France, India , Pakistan, Israel, North Korea , and China   have them. The technology is so powerful that they were only used twice so far in human history. Nuclear power was beneficial to civilization. This was an efficient way of providing power to cities and towns. Nuclear weapons created another threat to survival. Testing caused more long term damage to environments and public health. Radiation and fallout from nuclear blasts last longer than the actual detonation. People close to testing zones got cancer or some form of radiation sickness. The environment can be damaged by radioactive pollution of the atmosphere. Underground nuclear testing can cause further damage to an ecosystem. Oceans can also be effected by radioactive pollution. 

There are few weapons that can match the destructive power of a massive  nuclear arsenal. The arms race comes at a cost. Precious resources are redirected to war instead of useful research. Fusion reactors could meet the world's power needs , however progress is lacking. Public trust has also been eroded, because nuclear power has been give a negative connotation. The advancement of nuclear physics and the discovery of the mass energy equivalence  ushered in the atomic age. The nations of the world have not used nuclear power responsibly, even with the assistance of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Nuclear weapons will not go away unless every country agrees to their gradual abolition. 

       Information technology has radically changed commerce, the distribution of knowledge,  and entertainment. The birth of the internet, more powerful computers, and social media have altered the way people obtain information. The development of quantum computers will allow greater transfer ad storage of human knowledge.  The problems that emerged were unforeseen consequences. Cybercrime,  government surveillance , and  hacking would not have been possible without computers. Censorship has gotten a new medium to invade with numerous tech companies instituting rules that make them appear as if they are publishers. What could have been a potential for promotion of free speech and open exchange of ideas is now under attack. Cybercrime is a more serious problem than misinformation or mendacious claims written over the internet. Identity theft , phising, and other types of scams have become more common. The exchange of personal information without the consent of users on numerous platforms continues. Some regulation may be required to prevent abuse or exploitation. 

The more terrifying development is the use of information technology for mass surveillance. Governments around the world both democratic and authoritarian spy on their citizens. Communication over e-mails or cell phone calls. The violation of privacy and basic rights can happen without a person even being aware of it. No government has the right to spy on its citizens. Mass surveillance will only get worse, because more advanced technology makes it possible.  Facebook and Twitter accounts may be subject to mass surveillance in the distant future. Artificial intelligence  and automation poses challenges related to economics. There could be job loss from both skilled and unskilled workers due to automation. Theoretically, a robot that can produce more than a human being on an assembly line. Robots would build other robots. If machines become too self aware, they might challenge organ life for supremacy. This scenario may seen like an idea of of science fiction, but could happen at the end of the century. Robots could be utilized for military combat or policing. Using robots or information technology for war or control will only have lugubrious effects on society. 

     There have been predictions that at some point humankind and machine will merge. Transhumanism describes the concept  in which people will use technology to enhance human physiology and biology. Humankind may be able to control and guide its own evolution. Medicine, surgery, and contraception are examples of how people are controlling or manipulating their own biology. Genetic engineering opens up possibilities related to life extension and advancement of health science. Genetically  inherited diseases could be cured. Humanity would have more cures for diseases, rather than a series of treatments. The issue is not about combating disease, rather it is the problem of people enhancing themselves biologically  for the sake of it. 

The merger of information technology combined with genetic manipulation will create a class of biologically enhanced human beings. Such enhancements biological or physiological could be mass marketed to the public. The fear is that this will become a new type of eugenics, in which people are subject to selective breeding. However, this would be a step further than cosmetic surgery. Humans could changes themselves so much they are an entirely different species. The world may come close to resembling that of  A Brave New World and Frankenstein . There remains a risk attempting to manipulate genes and biology. The rise CRISPR ( clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats )  technology indicates that humanity will at some stage be able to guide its own biological evolution. What CRISPR  technology does is enables the location of a specific section of DNA inside the cell. This makes gene editing more efficient . Biology, genetics, medicine, and health science is unlocking the full potential of human bodies. The intention should not be to turn people into science experiments. 

       The ethics of use must be considered when creating and introducing new technology to the public. The myth is that science and technology changed human society for the worst. The negative consequences came about through abuse of knowledge and power. The misuse of scientific knowledge involves  utilizing  it for avarice or malicious intent. Nuclear weapons were made for the purpose of annihilating an enemy. Nuclear power provides electricity. The difference related to use is one contributes to a functioning civilization. The ethics of use of science and technology must follow certain guidelines. The knowledge and technology developed must contribute to human welfare. It should assist in well being, prosperity, and general health. The scientific and technological knowledge should benefit the majority of the world's population. Too often a wealthy elite have the majority of benefits before everyone else. A separation between science and warfare must occur. Technology and scientific information used for war endangers human existence. The goal should be to ensure civilization's survival not its destruction. Educating the public about technology and science should be a priority. Showing how to use technology and scientific knowledge in an ethical manner can be a means of preventing future abuse.  The ethics of use provides a pathway to manage the unknown consequences of  technological and scientific advancement. 

     Rapid change can have serious  repercussions. Air pollution, climate change, reliance  on fossil fuels, plastic and toxic waste are the consequences of humanity's fast technological advancement. The environment and Earth's ecosystems suffered as a result. Various species of animals and plants are at risk. Overtime, deforestation and desertification can threaten human populations. Carbon emissions generated from human activity exacerbate the green house effect, which causes dramatic change in climate. More floods, the gradual melting of the Polar ice caps, lethal heatwaves, and more extreme weather events are linked to climate change. Fossil fuels create hostility between nations. Oil has in particular caused much conflict and environmental damage from off shore drilling. Plastic production has made it so that unused parts of the material are discarded on various lands. Hazardous waste becomes more difficult to store. The more people consume the more waste is produced. Landfills may not be enough to ensure public health and safety.  Technological advancement came so quick, that few anticipated the aftermath. The industrial revolution set human history on the path of  mass production and technology based societies. The environmental conditions only worsened  gradually. Solutions do exist to the challenge of rapid change induced by scientific advancement. New innovations can confront environmental degradation  . Solar and wind power can contribute to the world's energy needs. Electric cars can help with the reliance on fossil fuels. A combination of recycling or waste to energy methods could be used to deal with more hazardous waste. 

       Technological and scientific advancement could create a situation in which scientism can be  used for malevolent intent. Scientism is not an extremist   ideology, however it has the potential to be molded into one. The term has occasionally been used in a pejorative connotation.  If human civilization has mastered so much knowledge, then it could apply it rigidly  to everyday life. What could emerge is a technocratic bureaucracy that governs in which others have little input. Experts would not be challenged or debated in this system.  The promotion of science  and technology should be lauded, but there should be no attempts to make it into another religion. The mistake is thinking one subject or idea has all the answers. Science just like any other academic discipline can be prone to error. This is why the scientific method is used to verify facts. Theories must be tested rigorously to be considered true. The aim should be for science to be objective. The problem is that people naturally  have certain biases, which influence their thought. Being zealously  devoted to a single belief or  ideology  can result in dogmatic thought. Science was not immune from such behavior. The concepts such as epicycles,  the theory of ether, and  the theory of humors had scientists devoted to them, even when they were proven wrong. There exists no academic subject that was completely error free. The best way to solve this issue is to promote critical thinking. People should be encouraged to question the information or knowledge they are presented. Science thrives on questioning natural phenomena . Only when people have a greater understanding of technology and science can the challenges that come from development be managed. 

Bagger 288 Excavator

The Bagger 288 excavator is one of the largest machines built. This technology is also known as the bucket wheel excavator. There are many types of excavators, but none are as immense or impressive as the Bagger 288. Construction machines and vehicles are essential to mining. Prior to certain building technologies mining would have to be done with human muscle power. The process could be both long and perilous. The Bagger 288 was the product of imaginative engineers who wanted to make the fastest and biggest digging machine that had ever existed. The Bagger 288 was constructed by the Krupp company beginning in 1978. It is difficult to fathom how people could construct technology so large. There are two types of mining that are conducted when digging for coal. Surface and underground mining  are the two methods for this type of fossil fuel extraction. The Bagger 288 was perfectly designed to handle the challenges that are involved in surface mining. Like any other machine it has certain structures that serve different purposes . The company responsible for this technology was ThyssenKrup , however it falls under the ownership and operation RWE AG. RWE AG is a utility company. The Bagger 288 is a testament to the marvels of  engineering and applied science.
     The Bagger 288 has many construction and mining capabilities. The digging capacity is very impressive with the ability to move 240,000 cubic meters of  rock and dirt a day. The weight of this machine can be the equivalent 8,600 cars. Bucket wheel excavators seeing as they have such a high removal and extraction capacity are more efficient. The economic benefit is more labor done and much faster than what a worker could do manually. Enormous amount of minerals can be excavated in short periods of time. The bucket wheel can move lignite and overburden ( rock and soil that is present above the ore beneath)   to such a high degree that is an equivalent  40,000 workers or 240,000 cubic meters. To get a full understanding of the amount moved imagine about 10,000 full dump trucks. The bucket wheel will take the material. It will then be transported on a conveyor belt, which is three meters in width. The spreaders the expel overburden.

The Bagger 288 has the ability to probably dismantle mountains, if enough are used. Such a vehicle was not designed to obtain high speeds. The Bagger 288 can gain a speed about one third a mile per hour. The wheels are part of a caterpillar track assembles. These machines are designed solely for operating in open pit mines. This may be as large a machine that humanity can possibly build. A  vehicle any bigger would not be able to move efficiently. 

       The dimensions of the Bagger 288 are gigantic. The wheel  of the the digging end is 21 meters in diameter. This wheel is important, for with out the spin the machine would not dig. Excavator scoops line the wheel for assistance in digging. The bucket wheel  excavator can be up to 225 meters long and 96 meters high. The whole excavator can be a total weight of  12,840 tons. Considering the size of a Bagger 288 it requires a high amount of horsepower. The operation requires 20,000 horsepower, which is a total of 16 megawatts. The crane like superstructure is estimated to be 95 meters tall. The three sections of the Bagger 288 can be a total of 210 meters long. The Bagger 288 is reliant on electric motors to operate with the addition of  extension cords. A vehicle this large, it has different sections which have particular names. The operator cab is the place in which a person will run the excavator. The amazing aspect about this is that one operator can run the entire machine. Normally, a total of three people would be running this technology. Crews could be as many as five people. Considering its large size one would think it would involve more people for operation.  Safety devices are present through the machine to ensure nothing goes wrong. The Bagger 288 also contains slewing gear. This is located between the undercarriage and the superstructure. The slewing gear has the task of assisting the movement of the superstructure to various positions. Service cranes are at various points to replace and fix damaged machine parts. A hoist  that contributes to the movement of the boom allows it to move up and down. The Bagger 288 basically consists of three components. The bucket wheel ( with the motor and conveyor belt), the operator cab, and the superstructure that supports all the other parts.The Bagger 288 is a combination of barrels, cranes, and electrical wires, which can excavate faster than a crew of miners. 

References 

Marshall, Brain. The Engineering Book.  New York :  Sterling, 2015. 

 Malone, Robert. “The World's Biggest Land Vehicle.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 16 July 2012, www.forbes.com/2007/03/12/bagger-vehicle-tractor-biz-logistics-cx_rm_0312vehicle.html#3eb14f89aa1b.

Bagger 288 – a Giant among Bucket Wheel Excavators.” Industrial Solutions, 6 May 2014, www.thyssenkrupp-industrial-solutions.com/en/products-and-services/mining-systems/bucket-wheel-excavators/bagger-288.

Why Outer Space Should Not Be Militarized

President Donald Trump announced his intentions of forming a sixth branch of the US military. His proposal would be known as a space force. The militarization of outer space would create a major threat to humanity. The danger is present in the spreading of war zones beyond our planet. The cost would be immense to train soldiers, build space craft, and maintain programs. There is risk that also comes with extended periods in outer space. Human health may not be fully protected or maintained. The development of a space force would harm the more important objectives of space exploration. Discovery, the accumulation of new knowledge, and a greater understanding of the universe in its entirety should be the goals of space program. Such objectives could be an international effort, with various nations working on space exploration projects. Although  space race was the product of Cold War conflict and competition, this should not be the behavior or mentality of the contemporary period. Space exploration should be about increasing scholarship in regards to an unknown environment, not making space into another theater of war for the sake of militarism. Astronomers, astrophysicists, aeronautical engineers, and astronauts should object to the militarization of space. Space explorers and scientists should be examining the nature of the universe. Space exploration can create many opportunities for employment, business enterprise, advancement of civilization, and an understanding of mankind's place in existence. Science should be a humanitarian endeavor with the intent of improving lives and environments. A space force would only create more confrontation and a global arms race. Trepidation about developing a space force may seem misplaced, but this development will not longer be science fiction. It could easily become a reality within a few centuries. Technology has rapidly advanced and there is no reason to assume that it would stop. The exploration and possible colonization of space  would represent  a remarkable achievement in humanity's scientific progress. A space force could reverse such accomplishments. The militarization of space would have negative consequences that are vast and permanent.
       Spacecraft would have to be more developed for a proposed military force in space. Although details are limited about the space force, it may be modeled on the US Navy. Meaning that there will be space ships patrolling certain areas of the Solar System or possibly distant galaxies. This would require the construction of multiple space stations to house soldiers and staff. Space craft would have to be durable enough to sustain long term use and extremely low temperatures. Building a spacecraft that can attain high speeds would not make reaching particular destinations easier. There are places that are lightyears away and reaching them would take an entire human life cycle. Humanity's only solution to this problem of travelling far distances would be to some how manipulate traversible wormholes. If such structures could be manipulated it is possible to find short cuts through large distances of outer space. This would have to be a precondition before the creation of any space force.Otherwise, space soldiers would either have to start serving in their early youth and if they do return to Earth settle for a late retirement. Wormholes theoretically could also be used for time travel as some astrophysicists have suggested. The physical barrier is that they would have to be  large enough to fit spacecraft. It is not entirely known if  this type of travel could be safe or as convenient as theorized. Outer Space may be one of the harshest environments that humanity will travel in.

The only place humanity been on is the moon. Other forms of space exploration has been done with satellites, robots, probes, and  telescopes. The Hubble Telescope produced more information than what a crew of astronauts would have done. Sending astronauts to various areas of space entails a huge amount of danger and immense costs. Space shuttles have been retired in favor of a new generation of spacecraft. The Orion spacecraft shows promise in terms of durability and efficient engineering design. Many more will have to go into production to allow for a space force to operate. Unlike other spacecraft of the 20th and early 21st century, Orion has been made specifically to travel further compare to its predecessors. Space vessels are being made smaller. There may be a more practical reason for this development. The combination of space debris from launches and satellites has become a concern. Such a build up could pollute  the Solar System or more space as humanity begins to colonize it. Space debris could be reduced with spacecraft that is diminutive in size. The problem is that production of smaller craft would have to be large enough to allow for a substantial space force. Sending a battalion or even a company of soldiers could be a finance and logistical challenge. Obviously, seeing as this space force is part of the US military the spacecraft would most likely have to be weaponized in some way. 

The new generation of spacecraft would not be able to support large artillery attached to it. Due to temperature, weight, and the microgravity environment this would be more of an engineering failure. The weapons would have to be laser based. There remains a technological issue with this as well. Such a weapon would require a large amount of energy. It would need enough power to inflict damage on other spacecraft. Semi-conductor lasers do not have the power to cut through metal, but a laser to be made into an effective weapon would require further technological advancement. This could also require, if developed a field test. The laser would have to be developed on Earth and experimented with. Then it would have to be attached and mounted on the spacecraft and then tested in space. This could take a number of years or decades to ensure effectiveness. Spacecraft was not intended to be designed for combat. Its main purpose was for transport, housing accommodation, and scientific observation in the Solar System. The current spacecraft being produced now, would not be enough for a large scale military force. A new form of spacecraft would have to be designed if it is going to be similar to a combat vehicle or naval ship. Airplanes did not begin as technology used for combat. Gradually, they were developed for that purpose starting with World War I. Tanks were made with the purpose of being used in military operations firing shells and transporting soldiers. Creating a fleet similar to that of Star Wars or Start Trek  may not be possible under the current technology. There needs to be a greater understanding of the ecology and astrophysics of outer space before attempts are made to build a space force. 

     Human health also raises a concern. Seeing as humanity is born into an environment of gravity going into space for long periods effects musculoskeletal health. The microgravity environment could cause muscles to atrophy. What can be observed from the health conditions of astronauts can provide predictions of how a soldier in the space force would react to this environment. Bone mass loss can occur in space. The threats to muscloskeletal health can effect men and women, but there may be a more pronounced difference due to sex differences. If women on average have lower bone and muscle mass, this means they would have a worse outcome in terms of health in a space environment. There are some cases in which astronauts may experience visual impairment and hearing loss. Orthostaic intolerance and struvite kidney stones also are conditions that can arise in the bodies of space travelers. Soldiers also face numerous health issues on Earth. Musculoskeletal injuries, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, and post traumatic stress disorder are becoming more common for US soldiers. Physical injuries can happen during basic training and preparation for military occupational specialty. The attrition rate can be high in physically demanding occupations. Medical discharge, stress, or a harsh workplace contributes to this. Building a space force would increase the number of medical discharges. If they are high on Earth, it should be assumed that it would be higher in space. If a space force is to travel to other galaxies and planets, there must be considerations from the astrobiological perspective. There could be multitudes of organisms and microorganisms that may be dangerous. If there are Earth like planets, there is a possibility that bacteria or viruses could exist in their ecosystems. Animals or certain plants may be harmful to human life. There should be no attempt to bring any organism from other planets back to Earth. The effects on people or the wider environment could pose high risk. Space also can be a place of  immense radiation levels. The Earth is protected by its magnetic field. 

When space travelers depart, they face more radiation that what they would normally be exposed to. A soldier on a space force could be risking fertility. The proposed space force would either be in space long periods of time for patrolling or would have to rotate similar to an astronaut's schedule. This is the same problem with the attempted mission to Mars. Astronauts would not be in the physical shape once the they reached the planet, due to changes of the muscular and skeletal system. New technologies such as the advance resistive exercise device have been developed to combat the effects of microgravity on the human body. The technology would have to advance further, if a space force is to remain in such an environment. Living in space may put travelers at risk for cancer depending on the level of radiation they are exposed to. A soldier who enlists in a space force would have numerous medical conditions, if  occupational safety is ignored. Space stations would not be adequate enough given the current technology to house the new branch of the military and their families. New born babies could be susceptible to particular conditions related to space travel. If adults experience such conditions in space, this would likely be worse for a growing body of an infant. As a precaution, soldiers of the space force would have to leave their families on Earth. Long space journeys could have an effect on mental and physical health. Planners of the new space force should be solicitous of the factors that could cause harm or either death to soldiers. 

         War has been a persistent threat to humanity. The 20th century saw mass global conflict starting with World War I and World War II. After such devastation, there was a movement to resolve international disputes peacefully. This was the intention of the United Nations, but it was dominated by the superpowers of the United States and the Soviet Union. Even after the Cold War, there still is conflict. The creation of a space force only opens up another theater of war. Wars have been conducted from the land, air, and sea. The 21st century has also given rise to a new type of warfare. Hacking and espionage through the internet are cyberwarfare  which the US and Russia may be engaging in. Space would just become another area of combat, even though various nations share the same planet. The race to build space forces would inevitably lead to countries competing with one another in a mass arms race. The United States, Russia, China, France, Germany, and the UK  would then attempt to construct space based weaponry. The potential for mass conflict on the Earth and in space would increase with the establishment of a space force. There have been programs that sought to militarize outer space. The Strategic Defense Initiative was a product of President Ronald Reagan's aggressive anti-communism. This was a program that was designed as an anti-ballistic missile system that would deflect attacks from other countries. Using innovative technologies SDI was going to be the most impervious missile defense system. The proposal intended for laser and mirror  systems  to either intercept missiles form land or in outer space. SDI was started in 1983 and gradually drew criticism. What was later dubbed the "Star Wars" program cost billions and jeopardized negotiations with the U.S.S.R in 1986. 

The program would require more technological advancement and more energy than the Reagan administration realized. The program was abandoned and some felt that it was ludicrous science fiction. Although the proposals for a space force may parallel the SDI program, there is a slight difference. The Trump administration seeks to boost military spending possibly higher than what the Ronald Reagan presidency did. NASA would be tempted to be a large part of the development of the space force, simply because more funds means they could do other projects in the future. The military industrial complex will expand into outer space. The amount of profit would be too great for arms manufacturers to ignore. Corporations and governments who believe in geopolitical hegemony will work to develop space forces for permanent warfare. This would be an abuse of scientific knowledge and engineering.  Extending human conflict into outer space would open unknown perils. Before going into space, there must be conflict resolution on Earth. 

         Building a space force would require a significant amount of funds to maintain. The costs would have to factor the construction of spacecraft, the supplies for soldiers, benefits, healthcare, pension plans, and wages. The United States spends a large portion of its budget on its military. If a space force is going to be created the federal income tax would have to increase. Taxes generate revenue for the US government, but many American citizens are unsatisfied with the rate. Disproportionately, the middle class and working class Americans pay more federal income tax. These groups would be paying for the establishment of a space force. Collectively, such revenue may not be enough so long as wages remain stagnant in the workforce. There are solutions to this. The wealthiest would have to either pay more income taxes or there would have to be private investment from various companies. Under a supply side economic model this would not be sustainable. National debt could become so enormous that the country would face recession. Space exploration may have high costs, but it provides valuable information. A space force from an economic perspective would be a terrible decision. The only way it would be a fruitful benefit was if  more natural resources could be found on Earth like planets. The Earth's fossil fuels are a finite resource and they will be depleted based on the rate of human consumption. Extracting natural resources from other planets, rather than on Earth could be more profitable and safer. It would definitely help preserve the condition of Earth's environment. This would take decades of development and planning. Actual execution of missions would be even more arduous. Most American citizens would not be willing to pay for developing a space force. The congress and senate would most likely not approve of legislation to establish a space force based on the astronomical costs. 

        The establishment of a space force also raises concerns about the environment of space itself. Human environment interaction  can result in pollution. The exploration of space has led to the accumulation  of space junk . If space travel is going to rise of the course of a few centuries this may create an environmental protection issue. The amount of space junk around Earth must be removed some how before an entire force of soldiers goes off into space. If a space force will be going to other planets and back this will add to the gigantic amounts of space debris already around Earth. 

   

Human civilization will have to confront pollution on multiple fronts. Space, the atmosphere, and the oceans. The problem with outer space is that its size would make protection also insuperable. The danger is that human beings would replicate the space debris conditions on Earth in other areas. If such pollution and waste propagates, traveling through space or to other planets would be even more unsafe. An effort to clear the space junk would have to be a precondition for mass travel through space with a military force. Regulation of travel and waste disposal would have to be a top priority. Otherwise outer space could be nothing more than an area filled with debris from spacecraft and satellites. The proposed space force will most likely consist of large numbers of soldiers, support staff, and civilian workers from the Pentagon. The higher the population, the more pollution and generation of waste. What is known about human behavior on Earth demonstrates that an environmental protection policy must be implemented before ambitious projects are started. Space already is a rough environment. It is a place of blackholes, gamma ray bursts, and asteroids. Humanity could have the potential to either make such an environment secure for travel or cause permanent damage to particular planets or systems. A conservative political administration would not have concerns for environmental protection. If the policies on Earth are the same, such advocates would surely replicate them in space. The long term travel of the space force poses complications to the environments of other galaxies and planets. 

      The militarization of outer space should not happen. The risks to human health, international peace, environment, and economic welfare are too great. Space should be explored for the sake of human knowledge, not for military or imperial endeavors. The United States realizing it has challenges from other world powers wants to reassert itself. The world now functions on a multipolar power structure and the days of the US being the sole superpower are coming to an end. This dramatic shift in international affairs may be a cause for conflict. The nations of the world should seek peace and collaboration. Space exploration can be the unifying force between the nations of the world. Astronomers, astrophysicists, astrobiologists  aeronautical engineers, and astronauts from all over the world could cooperate on terraforming  and space colonization projects. Militarism has caused mush devastation throughout human history. Armies are not the liberators of people, rather they are the conquerors. The military is not a humanitarian organization and it is not interested in the higher aspirations of science. The space force proposal is being presented as a humanitarian and exciting new development when there are obvious motives behind its development. The US weaponizing space would put the world at its mercy, if it an do it effectively. The sudden rush to create such a military force is a way to threaten other countries, specifically Russia and China. Such behavior should not continue in the future. Callous action could result in mass global conflict, only this time space would be another front. Outer space should be available and open to all nations. A humanistic approach relative to science should be taken. A space force is not needed, because there are no imminent threats from space. Comets and potential changes in the Sun are matters of concern. Yet, these events may happen far off in the future. Efforts should be directed toward leaning more about the Solar System and Milk Way Galaxy. More effort should be made to successfully get astronauts to Mars. The Donald Trump administration has promised to expand that NASA goal and mission, but it is dubious such a program will come into existence. There seems to be more enthusiasm for science with conservatives when it has a military application. Otherwise, particular factions reject common scientific knowledge such as evolution and climate change. If any organization is to be formed it should be for the purpose of gathering further information on space and the universe as a whole. The military should not be involved in dictating scientific policy and NASA should not be pressured into producing for a space force program. Space exploration, settlement,  and the discovery of new knowledge are the only activities humanity should invest in relative to the universe.              

  

   

     

   

The Technological Apex

Technology has radically changed society. Transportation, communication, and economic services have become more efficient at any point in human history. Science continues to make advances in astronomy, physics, biology, medicine, and computer science. At some stage in evolution of technological advancement there will be an apex. This means that civilization will have reached such a mastery of science and technology that it cannot advance any further. Disease will not be an issue to public health, space travel will be a part of daily life, and quantum computers could be in every household. These notions may seem exaggerated, but what was once science fiction has become reality. Airplanes, spacecraft, automobiles, and super computers have become a part of human society. If the world decides to put emphasis on rationality and progress the future could be a better place. There is a possibility that such advancement to civilization could be lost to warfare, civil unrest, or severe climate change. History has demonstrated that not only ideas, but technology has changed society to an enormous degree. The turning points were the rise of philosophy, which evolved into modern science, and from there applied science. The industrial revolution, modern medicine, mathematical theory, physics, biology, and chemistry allowed for the modern marvels of the contemporary era. This vast knowledge  could easily be lost, which has occurred during periods of instability.    If this can be avoided, then civilization will reach a technological apex. The rise of the technological apex will be the most significant development in human history. World civilizations at that stage will be able to control the environment, resources, and even the very nature of life itself.
   Transportation has become more prevalent. Air planes, automobiles, trains, and space craft move humankind everywhere. The last and final step in the revolution of transport will be space travel. So far humankind has been able to the reach the Moon. The year 1969 was the time in which humanity went into space. The next destination, with enough effort will be Mars. There are technical challenges. Traveling beyond our Solar System could be extremely perilous. Radiation levels and lack of  gravitation on a spacecraft could effect the body. Long term health effects are still unknown. This must be understood if humanity is to travel long distances in space. Besides merely traveling, there should be plans for possible terraforming. The Moon and Mars could provide a great testing area for such experiments. Astronomers have discovered that there are Earth like exoplanets beyond our Solar System. If spacecraft becomes more advanced, these areas could be colonized. The long distance traveling space craft would have to be efficient in fuel and durable in structure. Traveling to areas that are thousands of light-years away would take many lifetimes. The possible method for fast travel would be to either manipulate traversable  wormholes or produce a ship with high speeds. Until these astrophysical barriers are  circumvented, astronomers have to depend on satellites and powerful telescopes. While space travel is still in a prototypical phase, the automobile industry will undergo a revolution.

Cars reliant on oil and gasoline will become obsolete. Electric cars and other means of fuel requirements will replace it. The only problem is that the automobile industry does not want to invest in it. Fossil fuels are a finite resource, so it is only logical that change will happen. This leads to other possibilities. Hover cars may be made available. They may not reach high altitudes, but enough to not require wheels. Hover boards could be made, yet there are some technical obstacles. Electric cars will be the cars of the future and be more efficient compared to fossil fuel vehicles. This type of car may be easier to maintain and have more durability. The fear is that consumers would stop buying more cars, if they lasted longer. Such a claim is not true, because a car to some people is a status symbol. Consumerism will never end and the public's appetite for new technology is always growing. Self driving cars are in the early stages of development. It will not be unusual to see drivers having their own cars drive without their hands on the wheel. The computer systems of such cars would have to be ensured that it cannot be hacked. To an extent this does pose a safety and security risk. As long as the drive has the ability to gain steering and brake control when they see fit, it should be fine for consumers. 

There will at some point be more high speed rail for land transport. The locomotive will not become obsolete. Instead more trains will be maglev rather than metal rails. There are only a few maglev trains that are active in some countries of the world. They will eventually become the standard. Japan and South Korea seem to be more open to the technology, while countries like Germany, Canada, and the UK have had them at various periods. The United States if it wants to reach a technological apex must invest in this technology. Trains that are maglev move more smoothly and this could reduce the risk of accidents. Subway systems could be constructed to meet the technological needs of such trains. Ultimately, this will reduce costs in terms of maintenance of transport systems. Maglev trains will be faster and more efficient than the traditional wheel and rail trains of the past. This will also impact commerce making shipping less of a burden. 

Aircraft will also undergo a revolution in design and capability. Fighter jets are becoming more sophisticated in terms of speed and mobility. The development should not focus solely on military purposes, but on commercial transport. The majority of research aviation technology is directed to that purpose, yet there should be more emphasis on safer  and fuel efficient planes. There are many engineers who are designing planes that appear like something out of science fiction. Humanity has conquered the sky and land in a short period of time. The march of technological advancement started with the development of simple machines, the tools of the Paleolithic and Neolithic era, and the creativity of the human mind. Yet, one should not jump to rapid conclusions or predictions about the future. While futurology is an exciting field, it tends to predict events that are either outrageous or exaggerated. The technological apex is not a prediction, rather a teleological narrative about where this technology might lead humanity. Relative to transportation, people will be more mobile than ever before. Migration is nothing new to humanity. Our australopithecine ancestors traveled by foot from Africa later to spread across the world. There has been a desire to move and settle. Humanity has mastered the skies and land, but the sea floor still seems like unexplored territory. There are many species of marine life that could be unknown. Submarines and submersible craft can only go so far due to the intense ocean pressure. Mastering full transport of land, air, sea, and the final frontier of space will take human civilization to another level. 

      Biomedical science has progress to a rapid degree. Organ transplants, safe surgery, and the understanding of health science. These advancement will eventually lead to life extension. This has happened to a degree, with more people living into old age. Stem cell research will lead to an efficient method of producing new organs without a donor. Genetic engineering will become more prevalent. Genetically modified organisms are already present in society. Plants and various sustenance are considered  genetically modified organisms. There remains a fear that with the power of genetic engineering a transhumanist future will take over. This is not about enhancing humanity with unnecessary modifications, but conquering disease. Genetically inherited diseases could be eliminated through genetic engineering. This could also lead to possible cures or better treatments for neurodegenerative diseases. Dementia and Alzheimer's disease can be cured through advances in cytology. If medicine progresses so far humankind may find the key to life. There holds the possibility that death can be transcended. If the physical and mental decline of senescence could be reversed life may not end. The problem is that this could cause social and political issues. Achieving immortality or eternal youth seems more like stories of legend and myth. From a point of biological evolution, physiology, and health science immortality would be impossible for humanity to achieve.Age and death are a part of the biological life cycle. Disease may not be completely subdued, however it can be reduced. Antibiotic resistant bacteria has increased in number causing major health concerns. Mental illness from a neuroanatomical   perspective is still a mystery. Brain scans such as computer axial tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography have discovered an immense about of information about the human brain. This exploration into the human brain and mind is a significant development. Understanding the most complex organic computer will finally answer the question what it means to be human. This has been a question of philosophy and religion; only recently has this question been answered in a scientific context. 

  

The more that is learned about human evolution, the more humankind understands itself. Advances in genetics can help us understand the past. Medicine will be better with few side effects and tailored better to a person's health condition. If new technologies are used responsibly they can improve the human condition. 

     The subatomic world also is a realm that needs further exploration. It is only a matter of time before the nature of various particles are fully comprehended. As a result the way societies consume energy will change. Solar and wind power are going to be a new part of energy production. However, fusion reactors will replace fission reactors. This means nuclear power could be made safer and meltdowns will no longer be a threat. A combination of  both wind and solar power including fusion reactors with meet the energy needs of a rapidly growing global population. Fossil fuel dependency no longer will hold back nations. Although the fusion rector is in a phase of development Germany and the UK have been doing research into such power generation. Besides mere power generation the discovery of the nature of matter sparks more wonder and curiosity. The higgs boson explains why matter has mass, but that is only a part of a much larger puzzle. Particle accelerators allow physicists to confirm various particles, even without mathematics to indirectly prove their existence. Theoretical physics will no longer just be hypothetical in nature; it will be fully experimental. The standard model could see expansion. There is a diminutive world of quarks, muons, leptons, taus, and neutrinos. Understanding such a small world allows for  the advancement of nanotechnology. 

   Machines that are nanometers in size could have various applications. The possibilities could range from surgery, construction, or manufacturing. This is more efficient than drilling for oil or mining coal. These fuel sources are finite and are near depletion. The political and international consequences of this could be devastating, unless action is taken. Investment in new forms of energy and the development of new technologies is the only rational solution. Harnessing the power of the sun could sustain human populations. The wind and solar cycle can be used to the world's advantage. For now the type 2 G star sustains the Earth. These technologies at some point could become prevalent. There still remains a level skepticism about their effectiveness and the business interests devoted to fossil fuel.

     Computers and information technology has come to dominate daily life. Video games, virtual reality, and the internet have created an entire industry of electronic entertainment. Another element to the rise of cyberspace is how it has changed culture. Communication has become more rapid and the average person has more exposure to knowledge. Mass amounts of information can be transferred to people in seconds. Computers went from being the size of an entire room, to the size of a phone. Computer power has increased rapidly, but the evolution will not stop. The next impressive milestone in computing will be the rise of the quantum computer. Currently the quantum computer is in its development stage. They are not like electronic computers that are reliant on transistors. Companies such as Google are already making such machines. This new type of computing manipulates quantum mechanical phenomena, which will perform operations in regards to data. This functions on measurements of qubits. Commercialization will follow and the public may have even faster and more powerful  computers. Mathematics as will gain from this in terms of theoretical research. Calculations of complex theorems or problems will be simple for a computer of this power. If computers are increasing their power, then artificial intelligence may follow. Robotics are a part of industry, yet they do not have the ability to learn. Learning, memory, and problem solving are attributes of intelligence. 

    

There could be in the future androids that are human like with intelligence . They could even have self awareness and sentience. What may seem like a fantasy, becomes more real as technology advances. The economic and political impacts could have some negative repercussions. The labor of robots could replace the work of man. There could be the possibility of revolt among the conscious robots against their creators. Automation poses problems for the workforce, but not the financial elite. These issues would have to be addressed before such technology is introduced. Regulation and certain laws would have to be enforced to ensure no abused would occur. While technology does improve life to an extent, the prospect of abuse becomes higher. 

      The technological apex is not a prediction of the future. It cannot be said the the future will look Bladerunner  or Startrek . These fictional representations show what the creators think the future might be like. However, invention would not be possible without imagination or creativity. Too often it is forgotten that ideas for technology had to thought of through a long process. Early versions of machines and their prototypes either were failures and required multiple attempts. Sometimes discoveries are pure accidents. The technological apex describes how far human civilization can go in terms of  the manipulation of technology and scientific discovery. Once it is reached, there may be nothing left to create. Human civilization may not even reach this level of development for a number of reasons. While there is advancement in science, the world is backward in many regards. Warfare, racism, and religious fundamentalism are a demonstration of  this backwardness.Before any of this level of technological advancement can be reached ideological and philosophical convictions must be changed. The new wave of anti-science sentiment must also be challenged. Ignoring facts such as climate change, human evolution, or environmental science can no longer be acceptable. The public and the wider society must learn to distinguish fact from fiction and most importantly be critical thinkers. A society that is too dogmatic and closed minded will never reach higher levels. The public has a suspicion about science that stems from either fear or lack of understanding. Technology generates this same emotion. Technology is a tool that can either be used for positive or nefarious purposes. It is a choice that people make and the societies in which they live make. The only way the technological apex can be reached is if humanity uses it to improve the human condition. Technology has become ubiquitous in world civilization and it will continue to spread. If humankind can survive it will reach a point of vast knowledge and power.