Chemistry : The Periodic Table And Periodicity

 

The periodic table is a chart designed to classify known elements. The periodic table is a tool of chemistry which contributes to the understanding of matter. Phoenix Learning Group explains the periodic table as a map. The elements can be placed on the periodic table as metals, metalloids, and non-metals. Most of the elements on the table are metals. There are a total of 118 elements listed on the periodic table. The elements are organized by atomic number . The atomic number is the total number of protons in the element. The group represents elements with similar valence electron counts. The columns of the periodic table are the groups. The periods on the chart show elements with the same number of electron shells. The periods are placed in the rows of the chart. To determine the number of neutrons the atomic number must be subtracted from the mass number. Understanding the attributes of elements has enabled chemical engineering. These are the elements known on Earth. There remains a possibility more could exist in the universe. The two mots abundant elements are hydrogen and helium. 

The Earth's Core Activity

 

The Earth's core activity has gotten the attention of scientists. The core might have stopped spinning or is going in reverse. The Earth's core contains a liquid outer section and a solid part in the middle. The recent detection was done by analyzing seismic wave data. The data was collection from over the past 60 years. According to researchers at Peking University, the core could have stopped around 2009. Only now has it resumed its rotation, but in an opposite direction. The core tends to rotate counter-clock wise. There might be a pattern for which scientists do not know the reason for. Knowledge of the Earth's core is difficult to acquire. Getting equipment to the core for examination would require advanced engineering. The immense pressure would destroy any camera that could go there.  The outer core contains nickel and liquid iron. What core activity  demonstrates is more must be  discovered about Earth. Just below the surface is a unique environment. The change in core activity is nothing to cause alarm. There are no disturbances on the surface related to ecological systems. Rotation change according to the study occurred in the 1970s. Based on the models it is predicted another will happen in the 2040s. The information is of use to geology and geophysics. The Earth has certain movement cycles related to its core. The mystery is what is the purpose of changes in rotation. Seismologists are attempting to provide an answer. The technological limitations and gaps in knowledge remain obstacles.   

The Challenges of Rapid Technological and Scientific Advancement

Science and technology has built the modern world. Within a century modes of transportation, communication, and access to knowledge have vastly increased. The rapid advancement of science and technology that occurred in the 20th century will continue into the next, but there are some unintended consequences that come with such a change. Some changes may even be potential threats or dangerous. Human civilization has reached a point that it can manipulate the environment, produce substances that do not occur in nature, and even alter its own biology. Science and technology has provided multiple benefits to society, there has been negative repercussions from its misuse. The development of weapons of war, environmental destruction, and the possibility of eugenic transhumanism are the products of the abuse of scientific knowledge. What should be the march of progress may become a dystopian science fiction nightmare. Only with proper regulation and understanding of science and technology can prevent such a negative outcomes . The public requires a greater comprehension of  technology and the scientific fields to better navigate a constantly changing world. The entire globe has been transformed by discoveries related to physics, biology, astronomy, and engineering. Knowledge progresses so fast along with computing power, that artificial intelligence is in reach. What must be prevented is humanity inducing its own demise through the power it has amassed from technological advancement. The challenges of scientific and technological advancement are the ethics of use, the negative impact of rapid change in society, and the possible use of scientism for nefarious purposes.  

      Engineering has produced many marvels . The applied science also created more lethal weapons. Nuclear weapons and there  proliferation has been a global problem. The only time nuclear weapons were used in combat was in World War II. Japan's cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki sustained the world's first nuclear attacks. Seeing the devastation these weapons caused made other countries want to acquire them.   The Cold War was period in which the likelihood of nuclear war was high. Even though it was avoided and the Soviet Union collapsed nations still seek to expand arsenals. The United States, Russia, the UK, France, India , Pakistan, Israel, North Korea , and China   have them. The technology is so powerful that they were only used twice so far in human history. Nuclear power was beneficial to civilization. This was an efficient way of providing power to cities and towns. Nuclear weapons created another threat to survival. Testing caused more long term damage to environments and public health. Radiation and fallout from nuclear blasts last longer than the actual detonation. People close to testing zones got cancer or some form of radiation sickness. The environment can be damaged by radioactive pollution of the atmosphere. Underground nuclear testing can cause further damage to an ecosystem. Oceans can also be effected by radioactive pollution. 

There are few weapons that can match the destructive power of a massive  nuclear arsenal. The arms race comes at a cost. Precious resources are redirected to war instead of useful research. Fusion reactors could meet the world's power needs , however progress is lacking. Public trust has also been eroded, because nuclear power has been give a negative connotation. The advancement of nuclear physics and the discovery of the mass energy equivalence  ushered in the atomic age. The nations of the world have not used nuclear power responsibly, even with the assistance of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Nuclear weapons will not go away unless every country agrees to their gradual abolition. 

       Information technology has radically changed commerce, the distribution of knowledge,  and entertainment. The birth of the internet, more powerful computers, and social media have altered the way people obtain information. The development of quantum computers will allow greater transfer ad storage of human knowledge.  The problems that emerged were unforeseen consequences. Cybercrime,  government surveillance , and  hacking would not have been possible without computers. Censorship has gotten a new medium to invade with numerous tech companies instituting rules that make them appear as if they are publishers. What could have been a potential for promotion of free speech and open exchange of ideas is now under attack. Cybercrime is a more serious problem than misinformation or mendacious claims written over the internet. Identity theft , phising, and other types of scams have become more common. The exchange of personal information without the consent of users on numerous platforms continues. Some regulation may be required to prevent abuse or exploitation. 

The more terrifying development is the use of information technology for mass surveillance. Governments around the world both democratic and authoritarian spy on their citizens. Communication over e-mails or cell phone calls. The violation of privacy and basic rights can happen without a person even being aware of it. No government has the right to spy on its citizens. Mass surveillance will only get worse, because more advanced technology makes it possible.  Facebook and Twitter accounts may be subject to mass surveillance in the distant future. Artificial intelligence  and automation poses challenges related to economics. There could be job loss from both skilled and unskilled workers due to automation. Theoretically, a robot that can produce more than a human being on an assembly line. Robots would build other robots. If machines become too self aware, they might challenge organ life for supremacy. This scenario may seen like an idea of of science fiction, but could happen at the end of the century. Robots could be utilized for military combat or policing. Using robots or information technology for war or control will only have lugubrious effects on society. 

     There have been predictions that at some point humankind and machine will merge. Transhumanism describes the concept  in which people will use technology to enhance human physiology and biology. Humankind may be able to control and guide its own evolution. Medicine, surgery, and contraception are examples of how people are controlling or manipulating their own biology. Genetic engineering opens up possibilities related to life extension and advancement of health science. Genetically  inherited diseases could be cured. Humanity would have more cures for diseases, rather than a series of treatments. The issue is not about combating disease, rather it is the problem of people enhancing themselves biologically  for the sake of it. 

The merger of information technology combined with genetic manipulation will create a class of biologically enhanced human beings. Such enhancements biological or physiological could be mass marketed to the public. The fear is that this will become a new type of eugenics, in which people are subject to selective breeding. However, this would be a step further than cosmetic surgery. Humans could changes themselves so much they are an entirely different species. The world may come close to resembling that of  A Brave New World and Frankenstein . There remains a risk attempting to manipulate genes and biology. The rise CRISPR ( clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats )  technology indicates that humanity will at some stage be able to guide its own biological evolution. What CRISPR  technology does is enables the location of a specific section of DNA inside the cell. This makes gene editing more efficient . Biology, genetics, medicine, and health science is unlocking the full potential of human bodies. The intention should not be to turn people into science experiments. 

       The ethics of use must be considered when creating and introducing new technology to the public. The myth is that science and technology changed human society for the worst. The negative consequences came about through abuse of knowledge and power. The misuse of scientific knowledge involves  utilizing  it for avarice or malicious intent. Nuclear weapons were made for the purpose of annihilating an enemy. Nuclear power provides electricity. The difference related to use is one contributes to a functioning civilization. The ethics of use of science and technology must follow certain guidelines. The knowledge and technology developed must contribute to human welfare. It should assist in well being, prosperity, and general health. The scientific and technological knowledge should benefit the majority of the world's population. Too often a wealthy elite have the majority of benefits before everyone else. A separation between science and warfare must occur. Technology and scientific information used for war endangers human existence. The goal should be to ensure civilization's survival not its destruction. Educating the public about technology and science should be a priority. Showing how to use technology and scientific knowledge in an ethical manner can be a means of preventing future abuse.  The ethics of use provides a pathway to manage the unknown consequences of  technological and scientific advancement. 

     Rapid change can have serious  repercussions. Air pollution, climate change, reliance  on fossil fuels, plastic and toxic waste are the consequences of humanity's fast technological advancement. The environment and Earth's ecosystems suffered as a result. Various species of animals and plants are at risk. Overtime, deforestation and desertification can threaten human populations. Carbon emissions generated from human activity exacerbate the green house effect, which causes dramatic change in climate. More floods, the gradual melting of the Polar ice caps, lethal heatwaves, and more extreme weather events are linked to climate change. Fossil fuels create hostility between nations. Oil has in particular caused much conflict and environmental damage from off shore drilling. Plastic production has made it so that unused parts of the material are discarded on various lands. Hazardous waste becomes more difficult to store. The more people consume the more waste is produced. Landfills may not be enough to ensure public health and safety.  Technological advancement came so quick, that few anticipated the aftermath. The industrial revolution set human history on the path of  mass production and technology based societies. The environmental conditions only worsened  gradually. Solutions do exist to the challenge of rapid change induced by scientific advancement. New innovations can confront environmental degradation  . Solar and wind power can contribute to the world's energy needs. Electric cars can help with the reliance on fossil fuels. A combination of recycling or waste to energy methods could be used to deal with more hazardous waste. 

       Technological and scientific advancement could create a situation in which scientism can be  used for malevolent intent. Scientism is not an extremist   ideology, however it has the potential to be molded into one. The term has occasionally been used in a pejorative connotation.  If human civilization has mastered so much knowledge, then it could apply it rigidly  to everyday life. What could emerge is a technocratic bureaucracy that governs in which others have little input. Experts would not be challenged or debated in this system.  The promotion of science  and technology should be lauded, but there should be no attempts to make it into another religion. The mistake is thinking one subject or idea has all the answers. Science just like any other academic discipline can be prone to error. This is why the scientific method is used to verify facts. Theories must be tested rigorously to be considered true. The aim should be for science to be objective. The problem is that people naturally  have certain biases, which influence their thought. Being zealously  devoted to a single belief or  ideology  can result in dogmatic thought. Science was not immune from such behavior. The concepts such as epicycles,  the theory of ether, and  the theory of humors had scientists devoted to them, even when they were proven wrong. There exists no academic subject that was completely error free. The best way to solve this issue is to promote critical thinking. People should be encouraged to question the information or knowledge they are presented. Science thrives on questioning natural phenomena . Only when people have a greater understanding of technology and science can the challenges that come from development be managed. 

Outer Space Can Change Brain Size

Human bodies were evolved for environments with gravity . This causes complications with long term space travel. Living in a microgravity environment can result in changes in the muscular and skeletal system. Muscle and bone mass can decrease being in space for long periods of time. Ocular structure can also be dramatically altered. What scientists have found out is that the brain can also undergo changes. The human brain can enlarge in space. Health complications can be possible threats to astronauts attempting to colonize other planets in the distant future. The study showed from MRIs from eleven astronauts showed these changes. The problem is related to body fluids and the absence of an oxygen atmosphere. There still are many unknown factors about what being in Outer Space can do to the human body. If there is going to be a mission to Mars, there should be a full assessment of likely health risks.   

The First Photograph of a Black Hole

The 2019 has ushered in an amazing discovery. Astrophysicists and astronomers now have photographic evidence of a black hole. The image above shows a black hole from galaxy M87.  To detect this supermassive black hole required a global network of eight radio telescopes. Such unusual structures of space are difficult to detect with cameras. The technique used was to look for the silhouette generated by the black hole's event horizon  and accretion disk. The Event Horizon Telescope had been gathering data since 2017 and from that information produced this image. Prior to this photograph, astrophysicists only had indirect evidence of black holes. Einstein's theory of relativity predicted their existence. Through mathematical reasoning and a different perspective relating to gravity, the black hole was an object of  outer space that could not fully be observed. As technology and telescopes become more advanced,  theoretical physics will become more experimental. Long baseline interferometry  combines the radio waves of various telescopes giving it more power to detect objects in the known  universe. The supermassive black hole of  galaxy M87 is 6.5 billion times the mass of the  Sun and 55 million light years away from Earth. Now that there is an image of an actual black hole, this only adds more questions. The most discussed remains what could be inside a black hole singularity. Astronomy and Astrophysics have reached a new age in exploration and knowledge. As more images of black holes are produced they may actually show possible variety in attributes.   

The Mobius Strip

The mobius strip is a structure that is a one sided band form by combining  ends of a rectangular strip after first giving one of the ends a half twist. One strip of the end  will be twisted 180°.  August Ferdinand Mobius  was the mathematician and professor that made the discovery of this shape late in his career. Johann Benedict Listing would also make contributions to the articulation of its topological properties. Both  mathematicians produced their findings around 1858. Although it is not realized the mobius strip has many applications to science, art, engineering, and mathematical theory. The one sided structure has been used to present geometric models of the universe, molecular structure, and architectural design. Magicians use the mobius strip for their tricks. The mobius strip can be commonly seen as a the recycling symbol on bins. The mobius strip did not gain wide recognition till after the death of the mathematicians who explored it attributes. The mobius strip can sometimes be described as a twisted cylinder. The one sided surface is non orientable. The mobius strip can not however, be classified as a true surface, rather a  surface with a boundary. This seems like a bizarre concept to many observers. A surface without a boundary describes a topological space that is revealed by edges and vertices of a set of triangles.

The mobius strip has to be expressed  in a form of equation. Parametric equations are ways in which certain elements of topology can be explained in Euclidean space. This is where classical geometry and topology differ. Topology focuses on the arrangement of shapes rather than strict emphasis on angle, distance, and measurement. Euclidean geometry has its limitations when describing particular shapes. The mobius strip would not have been discovered under a method using classical geometry. Topology breaks down shapes into nodes and connections. This approach allows shapes like the torus, mobius strip. and klein bottle to be comprehended. Topology was developed from graph theory in Leonard Euler's work The Seven Bridges of Konigsberg . This mathematical puzzle asked if it was possible to cross all seven bridges in the Baltic sea port with one route. Euler was able to demonstrate that this was not possible due to the number of connections. It was not a matter of the actual distance or orientation. It had to do with the connections or rather vertices. There was no solution to this mathematical problem, because a person would have to either cross a bridge twice or avoid one all together. This was written by Euler in 1736, but he had no idea how mathematics would advance in the 19th century. Euler laid the foundation for August Ferdinand Mobius  and Johann Benedict Listing. Topology seeks to see the nodes and connections in shapes. There is to this branch of mathematics a similarity  in shapes. Shapes remain the same no matter how much they are distorted. 

The mobius strip and the topology it represents branches off into other questions. Homotopy and homology. Homology examines the the structure in relation to algebraic sequence to topological structures. Homotopy puts emphasis on the study of the information related to the spaces of the shape. It also takes into account how functions behave and why they cause certain formations. Both homotopy and homology are needed to explain the attributes of the mobius strip. Topology also explores how geometric functions can be entangled or deformed. Multidimensional surfaces are known as manifolds and classical geometry would not have enough tools to describe these shapes. Topology can be applied to technological use. A pivotal use is for cooperative swarmbots. These diminutive robots manipulate topological spaces to monitor the environment. This allows for discovery of areas to place cell phone masts to enable reliable signals. Geographical information systems utilize topology in relation to maps through domains and boundaries. It may be possible that the mobius strip was stumbled upon prior to the 19th century. There is no recorded evidence that mathematicians came across such as structure. The mobius strip was the first one-sided surface studied by scientists. The shape is one of the most recognizable features of topology known to the general public.   

References 

Picker, Clifford. Math Book . New York: Sterling, 2009. 

Jackson, Tom. Mathematics An Illustrated History of Numbers. New York: 

             Shelter Harbor Press, 2012. 

  Weisstein, Eric. “Möbius Strip.” Wolfram MathWorld, Wolfram MathWorld , mathworld.wolfram.com/MoebiusStrip.html.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Möbius Strip.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 19 Apr. 2017, www.britannica.com/science/Mobius-strip.

The Meaning of Human Existence (2014)

The Meaning of Human Existence is a book written by Edward O. Wilson a pioneer in the field of sociobiology. Edward Wilson is both a naturalist and biologist who has spent decades studying the links between genes and behavior.Detractors claimed his views were too mechanistic or eugenic. Critics failed to fully comprehend the concepts of sociobiology. Organisms can be the products of both their genes and environment. Humanity is the product of both. The constant mystery is why organisms and biomes evolved the to what they are now. The Meaning of Human Existence  discusses science, philosophy, and its relation to existential thought. Wilson argues that humanity has acquired enough knowledge and experience to question what is existence and humanity's role in the cosmos. Edward Wilson also is convinced that this can be done in a testable manner. His perspective is that science and the humanities have grown too far apart. The problem with modern accumulation of knowledge is that it has become too grounded in specialization. He eloquently describes this about  this phenomenon when referring to academia. There is a human epoch in which people will be able to control and manipulate their own biology. This advancement does produce a dilemma as Wilson proclaims in the text. Wilson asks a few questions that have  been with humanity since it became curious. Does humanity have a special place in the universe ? What is the meaning of our personal lives ?  One would suspect that humanity may be unique in the sense that it is the dominant species on Earth and controls the biosphere to a degree. These questions of existence and meaning have been puzzling philosophers, scientists, and religious scholars. Such an answer would have to be a complex one. This may not necessarily be true. Edward Wilson gives a synopsis of human evolution, natural history, philosophy, and provides an explanation into the nature of existence. This is articulated in a series of essays in the book. The Meaning of  Human Existence  will make a reader see the world and universe in a completely different way.  
     The first essay discusses the connotations of meaning. Wilson states "in ordinary usage" the word "meaning " implies intention, intention implies design, and design implies a designer." This is more of the religious conviction of meaning. The other concept of meaning is as Wilson explains are the events of history and their networks of physical cause and effect. Events as Edward Wilson writes can be random, however they can later probability of later events. Reaching the full understanding of meaning would require a worldview of science. To answer such questions Wilson proposes that there should be a collaboration between the humanities and sciences. The vast body of human knowledge has become to separated, even when there are numerous connections. Wilson is proposing a scientific based understanding of human existence through means of self-understanding. As there is a push by some for greater understanding it poses a dilemma. The possibilities of manipulating human biology or even taking control of our own evolution is a reality. The power of genetic engineering and transhumanism is in civilization's grasp, but the problem remains should such actions be done. Wilson expresses that society should understand fully why humanity evolved in such a way before proceeding to alter it.

The question of existence requires multiple disciples to answer. Such questions are either discussed in terms of proximate or ultimate causation. This relates to living organisms and life function. Human beings have cells and  organ systems, but the reason why remains a mystery. These two techniques of explanation are required to reveal the significance of life. There is one flaw with Wilson's argument. Humanity did not "emerge entirely on its own."  Through evolution humans became the sole survivors of a primate species. Early humans were part of an ecological system much like today. Each organism functions on a trophic level requiring others. Relations could either be symbiotic or parasitic. Organisms do not simply emerge on their own. Evolution is one part of the emergence of species, but environment is critical. A change in geological conditions radically altered animal as well as plant life. If were not for the extinction of the dinosaurs and the rise of  mammal life there would not be humanity. What did emerge on its own was human civilization. No other animal on Earth has produced civilization like humankind. Music, science, and the arts are a testament to humankind's unique skill. Edward Wilson is correct on one position. Humanity is not here for a specific goal  nor   to answer to a higher power. This is why wisdom as Wilson explains based off the comprehension of ourselves should be our guide rather than piety. Doing this could be humankind's only salvation and key to the improvement of  persistent societal ills. The public must have a strong understanding of human biological evolution and history. 

        Human evolution must be fully understood if one is to understand the world and the societies that emerged. The second essay in Wilson's book explains that human history does not begin with the rise of civilization. He proclaims "the human condition is a product of history- not just six millennia of civilization but very much further back, across hundreds of millennia." Evolution explains much of animal and human behavior. There is a level of eusociality present in the animal kingdom. The term describes the true social condition and how a group raises offspring across multiple generations. Organisms that show eusociality appeared late in biological evolutionary history. Compared to insects and bacteria  the emergence of humans is fairly recent. The origins of human behavior began with a change in diet and anatomical change. Eusociality emerged in australopithecines when their diet became based around meat. This cause the intestines to become shorter, resulting in more metabolic function shifting to other areas of the body. Gradually, the cranial volume would increase and the brains of  primates would become more complex. The rise of hunting and campsites only caused eusociality to become more entrenched. These early structures required both cooperation and competition to function. The members that were part of this were provided shelter and protection. Humanity gained a level of social intelligence, which required calculated thoughts. The two early primates that provide some clues to the riddle of humanity are the homo habilis and the homo erectus. 

Homo Habilis

Two million years ago the homo habilis existed. These animals had human like bodies, but their cranial capacity was smaller. It has been estimated close to or less than 600 cubic centimeters. From homo habilis onward the cranial volume would increase. Homo erectus would gain more cranial capacity at 900 cc. Homo sapiens would see an increased cranial volume of 1,400 cc. This dramatic change in the brain was one of the most amazing events in biological history. The structures of the brain became more complex and allowed for more intelligence. The increase in intelligence also meant that social behavior was going to change. This would alter the course of world history. The genus homo could soon become the dominant species of the globe. Paleontologists and evolutionary biologists have the task of trying to figure out the social nature of the early primates. These forces are either part biological or environmental. There are competing theories that have emerged in the scientific community which attempted to describe the rise of advanced social behavior. 

Homo Erectus 

Kin selection is one theory that describes individuals favoring relatives and offspring within a group. This theory attempts to explain altruism that occurs among members of the same group. The reasoning behind such social behavior is that more genes can be passed on based around inclusive fitness. Inclusive fitness refers to the combined effects of reproduction and survival upon the individual. A group that helps one another at least in this theory has a better chance of passing on genes through altruism, rather than split competition. Multilevel selection has an opposing view. Natural selections operates on two different levels. Individual selection places another organism in competition or collaboration with another. There is a group selections in which units compete with other groups. Although it is difficult to test or  form an experiment for these theories, it seems that nature follows the multilevel selection based on observations of animal behavior. When applied to human behavior it become more apparent. People compete for jobs, resources, and land at an individual level. Nations are a collective and compete with each other for world influence. Chimpanzees compete with other groups of Chimpanzees for territory. Primates compete for mates on an individual level. Edward O. Wilson reveals that he favors this theory, because to a degree natural history confirms it. However, both theories must be vigorously tested to become scientific fact. 

What should also be understood is that evolution does not follow a linear path. It is like a tree with multiple branches. What binds the homo group, ardipithecus group, pananthropus group, and australopithecus group was that they probably emerged from a common genetic ancestor. While humanities can provide answers to early forms of art, it is important that there is an understanding of the anatomical,biological, and physiological elements of human nature. Sadly, the public has either a limited comprehension of evolution or a huge amount of suspicion. Wilson does make a cogent point in stating " what counts for long term survival is an intelligent self-understanding , based upon a greater independence of thought than that tolerated today in even our most democratic societies." The lugubrious aspect of the situation is that societies that claim to be free and democratic are more closed minded. Evolution is either attacked by the right as being false or the left as promoting justifications for an unequal society. Such accusations  lack credibility, but they have gained popularity among the public and more so in the United States. The real challenge is not only having a collaboration among the humanities and science, but defeating a powerful anti-intellectual movement. The teaching of intelligent design or fabricated history continues to stifle generations of students. If Wilson's vision is to be a reality it will require a complete restructuring of the public school system and a new approach to pedagogy. 

        The discussion of human existence will inevitably lead to questions of ethics. Edward Wilson poses the question to the reader : are human beings naturally righteous or prone to malevolence? Wilson seems to believe that people can be both a bit of both. The essay "Evolution and Our Inner Conflict" gives readers an examination into the debate of nature versus nurture. Wilson does clarify that humanity is not driven solely by instincts, but it cannot be ignored they are part of human behavior. Concepts such as right and wrong may just be artificial constructions to justify behavior that is either controversial, questionable, or abhorrent. Alleles the multiple forms of the same gene do effect human beings, just like their environments.   

Psychologically there is a desire to be part of a social network. This is also biologically based through multilevel selection. Humans can be friends or competitors. They may work in groups or on an individual level. The desire to be part of a group was most likely based on survival in the evolutionary past. A sense of belonging is not only helpful for one's physical security, but sense of worth. There is a negative consequence of this social behavior. Edward Wilson explains : "an amplification of this evidently inborn predestination leads with frightening ease to racism and religious bigotry." This genetic predisposition to group collectivist behavior could cause as Wilson puts it "good people doing bad things ."To explain human atrocities away by behavior is too simplistic. It could be that in reality there are not righteous people; just others who are more in control of their impulses. There is a reason children must have discipline and there are laws in place. Humans are still animals and to a degree have negative impulses. What makes humanity unique is that it has developed self control and systems of order to manage behavior. Altruism relative to biology is more of a practical mechanism, rather than an ethical one. There is a conflict between the altruist behavior and the selfish behavior which developed during human evolution. Yet, it is difficult to say that humanity is both simultaneously sinner and saint. The increase in brain complexity in terms of memory, reasoning, and the prefrontal cortex demonstrate that we are a rational and calculating species. Calculating a outcome may not always involve  ethical or altruistic  conduct. This partially explains why humanity engages in war and murder. This does not involve all members, however it takes significant portions. Mankind may be more malevolent than Edward O. Wilson realizes. Philosophy has struggled with the question of what is ethical and science may not be able to answer such a question. Psychology does have some indications. By stander effect may be the result of the desire to survive (driven by genetic elements ), rather than  take a risk helping someone in danger. Environment is a powerful force on people. To say that genetics is solely the basis of human behavior would be incorrect. The debate is not whether it is nature versus nature. The real inquiry is how much to nature and nurture collaborate with one another. When this interaction is understood for these two factors only then will there be a lucid explanation into human behavior. 

      Wilson makes the argument for the unity of human knowledge. Since the Enlightenment civilization has advanced technologically and scientifically at a fast rate. Humanity explained the existence and the world in terms of natural philosophy. Francis Bacon called this "the empire of man ." The Enlightenment was the quest to master rationality and to create a world based on wisdom. These ideas were effectively abandoned by the 19th century. The rise of Romanticism as an artistic and ideological movement challenged the reason based system of the Enlightenment. The humanities would then become separate from the sciences. As science became more rapid in its discoveries, they were not able to solve humanities pressing problems. The French Revolution, the rise of Napoleon and then his fall resulted in a backlash. Europe would return to political conservatism in the form of monarchy. Revolutions would happen again in 1848, but it seemed as if the dreams of rational societies based on natural rights were still elusive. Philosophy, the arts, and sciences became distant from one another. There is no reason why they should be. Edward O. Wilson wants there to be a renaissance of human knowledge. The sciences and the humanities must collaborate with one another and become the core of modern education. What hinders modern academia is that specialization has been the foundation. Scholars and students must have at least a basic understanding of other subjects. A university for example should not just be a place for learning or career building, but an area that discovers new knowledge. Literature, art, and theater are just as important as biology, physics, mathematics,chemistry,  and astronomy. To reach self-understanding there must be a full comprehension of knowledge. Humanity can be curious. That tendency seems to be strongest when it is related to anthropocentricity. When information is relative to the human experience it generates more interest. The sciences and humanities are linked by the common origin being born of the human mind. The human brain is the most complex organ producing thoughts, emotions, and the creativity seen in all subjects. This explains why humanities are also an important part o humanity. 

       The text poses a question in one essay asking what would we use to impress extraterrestrials. Certainly, our technology would not be on the same level. However, our art and various cultures would be something they would not have seen. The chapter " The All Importance of  the Humanities" demonstrates that humanities or sciences should not be presented as separate, The unique cultural evolution that has emerged since human existence has to be one of the most astounding phenomenons. Humanities is the product of cultural evolution and it can be seen early on in human history. Cave paintings show that our early ancestors had creative minds. 

Gene culture coevolution demonstrate that natural selection is still acting upon human beings. Both genetic and cultural changes can effect the trajectories of one another. Music, writing, and art are the products of humankind's ambition to create and be innovative. Wilson describes the humanities best as : " They are a natural history of culture, and our most private and precious heritage." Science and the humanities have a common goal of giving a description of existence. These two fields of study only differ in method and particular techniques to reach an answer. As applied science continues to advance in areas biotechnology,nanotechnology, and robotics humanity will need some form of reasoning and ideological guidance. There will be major economic, social, and political changes that will  spread across the globe. Robotics will change the labor market and possibly cause workers to lose jobs. There is more human migration than ever before. Genetic variation of the human species is increasing, which is the result of mass movements of populations. Humanities could be a means of creating a stable world in one of constant change and chaos. Edward O. Wilson warns that we should not depart away from our genetically inherited nature. This he believes is expressed in the humanities. It may already be too late to preserve the biological human nature as Wilson refers to it. Transhumanism will definitely be the wave of the future. Like any technology or scientific advancement it can either be used for positive or nefarious purposes. Holding on to humanities may preserve society from becoming automatons. Humanities has a place in society, but transhumanism will also be present. Evolution and biology can be erratic, it is just now humanity will gain more control over it. There should not be trepidation in regards to this change. If technoscientific advancement is regulated serious problems can be avoided. Wilson is correct to support the humanities, yet  the words of caution seem overly fearful about technoscientific change. The humanities will be safe as long as humanity has a desire to create art, music, film, and literature. 

        There is the possibility that we are not alone in the universe. Wilson suggests that there may be some form of live beyond the Solar System. Earth was born at least 4.54 billion years ago and as time past life emerged. The earliest forms of life were microorganisms. Microbes may be the species that truly rule the galaxy. If humanity discovers life it would probably be microbes. If it is on land or sea it microbes would still be the majority. Earth contains a multitude of microbes. This includes protists, fungi, algae, archaeans, and picozoans. Astronomers and astrophysicists have suggested that there are Earth like exoplanets, so the idea of microbes existing there does not seem like science fiction. 

The Milky Way Galaxy 

 Based on what is known about organisms that live in extreme environments on Earth (extremophiles ), harsh environments on other planets would not be a challenge for microbes. There are also microbes known as subterranean lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystems. They can be found in soil and rock fissures. Such organisms gain their energy form the Earth's rocks. Future space exploration may see even more exoplanets detected. Searching will require robots and space telescopes to search for life in Oceans or rock structures. When this book was published only 900 had been discovered and the numbers have increased since then. Finding life either unicellular or multicellular  would be an incredible achievement. Edward Wilson is skeptical that intelligent life would be prevalent. Although it is not impossible, it may just be rare. After all humans are different from other animals on Earth and it took millions of years of evolution to reach it current level of intelligence. When the discussion of  intelligent life form  existence is mentioned Wilson relies too much on speculation. There are assumptions that they would be land dwelling creatures, be relatively large, and would have cephalization. He provides an image of an anthropomorphized organism. This may not be the case if such organisms exist. Assuming that evolution functions in the same manner or differently depending on  the environment  extraterestrial life would look radically different from humans. Every animal on Earth has gone through some form of biological evolution and may continue to do so depending on conditions of their biomes. There is also the likelihood that many species both simple and advance would become extinct before humanity reaches them.  The Meaning of Human Existence  mentions how biodiversity is critical to survival of various species. This functions on three levels : ecosystems, species, and genes. Wilson has warned that humanity's disregard for the environment and playing roles in the accelerated extinction of particular species is an attack on humanity itself. Pollution and the use of fossil fuels has cause irreversible damage. Humanity may find itself extinct before finding other among the stars. Knowing this there could have been life in the universe, but was wiped out. There is a tendency to see the Earth as a unique and special place, but it is one of many planets. When more exoplanets are discovered this will open up more questions into the nature of existence. 

          The Meaning of Human Existence also discusses the concepts of free will and instinct. Wilson proclaims "instinct in humans is basically the same as instinct in animals." He goes on to say " however it is not  the genetically fixed, invariant behavior displayed by most animal species." The argument is that human beings use both reason and emotion, which creates this difference. People are more emotional, than rational. This projects itself in high risk behavior or deleterious actions. At times this would contradict the desire for survival. Human behavior is not entirely cultural or biological. It is a combination of both. To choose one over the other reduces a complex story of human evolution and environmental change. This is not to say that human nature is driven by simple instinct. The cerebrum that evolved in humans gave them the ability to have a wide range of learning and reasoning ability. Other animals require just instinct for survival. Sea turtles when they are born know to head to the sea when they hatch. The three spined sickleback fish changes its behavior when territory and mates are being sought after. The human brain evolved to contribute to survival. As social organization became more pivotal intelligence was require to keep the human species going. Humankind did not have the adaptations of claws, large teeth, or high running speed to compete with larger animals. That was why communication in the form of language was a major turning point in human history. Instinct allows organisms to have a sense of their surroundings and possibly warn of danger. If instinct has a biological basis this questions the concept of free will. Maybe people are not really in control of their choices. Free will and consciousness seem to be questions best left to philosophers rather than scientists. Neuroscience wants to  elucidate the nature of consciousness through a scientific method. The Brain Activity Map Project wants to document every element in regards to the change of neural activity of the human brain. Wilson poses a the question of free will's existence. He delineates it as this : " yes, if not in ultimate reality, then at least in the operational sense necessary for sanity and the perpetuation of the human species." There could be free will and it may have started when the first humans became self aware. The moment early genus homo species realized they were different from other animals could be the point in which some free will manifested. However, it is too early to make proclamations about free will or consciousness. More must be discovered about the human brain and biological evolution to make a conclusion. 

        The topic of religion inevitably will be mentioned in discourses on existence. The wonderful aspect of  The Meaning of Human Existence is that it does not avoid a controversial subject. All around the world there have been various peoples and civilizations who believe in a higher power. This is not just a sociological factor, but a biological one. Such beliefs may have been a survival mechanism in the Paleolithic and Neolithic past. It provided an explanation to the world and existence, when there was no other method of doing so. Creation myths as Edward Wilson explains were designed to keep cohesion in a tribal group. The problem with religion is rigid dogma, which has caused much conflict both in the past and in the present. Religion is caught in an Absolute Paradox as articulated by Soren  kierkegaard. Fixation on dogma is not only impractical it is impossible to achieve in praxis. Most religions would be difficult to follow perfectly. Everyone is not always going to be a good Christian, Jew, Muslim, Buddhist, Hindu, or other all the time. There is nothing wrong with having a belief system, the problem is irrational devotion to ideas that lack evidence or support. Dogma can even infect science. Scientism can also be similar to religion in its worship of the field. This would not be an alternative to the religious dogma that has been resurrected in the 21st century. The reason people keep their religion is because they want to convince themselves life has meaning and purpose. The idea that meaning is something that has to be discovered through thought and serious introspection holds too much uncertainty. There is also another matter which induces more trepidation. Death will come to us either by natural causes, disease, or murder. Many are comforted by the idea that their is the immortality of the soul or an afterlife. There is no evidence for an afterlife or a powerful deity that controls human destiny. Faith does not equate to fact. Edward Wilson articulates this as not a debate of fact versus faith, rather understanding what is existence on both a scientific and philosophical level. Dogma must be discarded  as well as the tribal gods and demons. This task is insuperable. It is almost shocking that in an age of advance science and technology, there are large sections of society that cling to superstition. Only with the promotion of scientific literacy can such religious fundamentalism be challenged. 

       The true meaning of human existence is not based on the act of creation, rather it is found in science and the natural history of the past. Humanities can explain the human condition, but science provides the technical articulation of natural phenomena. To have a full grasp of existence, an individual should obtain a strong knowledge base of both fields. Humanity may be an accident as the book suggests. Yet, this is not an argument for nihilism. There is an opportunity for greater freedom and wonder. There is promise with new technology that could improve health, infrastructure, or explore space further. This could be threatened or stopped if warfare, fanaticism, or anti-intellectual fervor becomes predominant. The Meaning of Human Existence   is an proposing a new paradigm of scientific humanism. Science and the humanities will be sued to improve civilization and society. There must be a counter to extremism represented in the form of creationism, climate change denial, or a general anti-science sentiment. With threats to humanity such as war, poverty, economic turmoil, or environmental decline the need for self-understanding is more important than ever. People must have the knowledge and tools to navigate a rapidly changing world. Cautious approaches should be made with new technologies and advancements. Too much is already known to stop the further manipulation of our own biology and environment. Providing an exact answer to human existence is just as arduous as providing solutions to the world's problems. Creation myths or explanations based on the religious or supernatural cannot answer such a complicated and intricate question. Doing so would be intellectually dishonest. It is worse to provide a wrong answer as truth,  than to say one simply does not know . There is an  answer to the meaning of human existence.Wilson sees the answer coming from both the humanities and science,because they have an origin in the human mind. Only then will humanity have a full understanding of existence. The Meaning of  Human Existence is a refreshing examination of science and the past of humankind . If humankind is to have a future it must comprehend the natural world and the organisms that reside in it. Whatever the true meaning of existence is, the possibilities are endless.         

          

  

   

     

The evolving story of human evolution | Melanie Chang | TEDxVictoria

Melanie Chang discusses the history and science of 8 million years of human evolution. Humanity is the last of its species. Humans have only been around 200,000 years. Neanderthals went extinct and homo sapiens were the lone survivors. Paleoanthropology has to be reliant on field work and fossils. It is not possible to revive neanderthals and study them in a natural history context. However, genetics has allowed some breakthroughs. Mitochondrial DNA provides some clues. Scientists in Germany found out that humans contain 1 to 4 % neanderthal DNA. This indicates there was possible cross breeding. Human are still evolving and this has been proven to be fact. evolution will no longer be just a theory, but a fact like the universal law of gravitation. There is resistance to new discoveries with the most religious thinking human evolution is not possible. Doubtless of conviction, facts are true whether you like them or not. The story of human evolution is still being revealed. The puzzle will only be complete when the common genetic ancestor is discovered for all primates.   

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process in which scientist in various field use to obtain knowledge or explanation of various phenomena. Prior to this method, pure science relied on observation. What one can see can be deceiving. The mysteries of the cosmos and the subatomic world require measurement . Physics gives humanity a mathematical expression of nature. The rise of more advanced mathematics allowed for science to become more precise. As a result it was easier to verify facts. While humanity finds answers, it leads to more questions. Science at its earliest roots was philosophical. The scientist seeks to discover facts and explain what they mean in a larger context. The process of the scientific method functions around several procedures: forming a hypothesis, experimentation, observation, prediction, formulation of laws, and then developing a theory. For a theory to be a fact it must be able to be reproduced. If it cannot be replicated in the same manner, then it is not a fact . This can only happen after a conclusion is made from the data collected. If a theory can pass through this criteria it will be scientific law.  There is another element to this that is rarely discussed. It is the desire for discovery. The curiosity to explore the unknown has driven humanity to many adventures. It should be understood that the goal is to reach as much precision as possible. Theories could later be altered or improved based on new findings. The scientific method is a constant process.
       The first step in this process requires a hypothesis. This stage happens when a question arises. Many of the great scientists began their quest for discovery by asking how the natural world works. It is pivotal to realize that it is better to state one does not know, then produce an incorrect answer. A level of research is required before embarking on an investigation.

The process of forming a hypothesis requires another set of steps. There a certain prerequisites that must be met prior to the hypothesis which include relevance, testable for the sake of experiment , compatibility with verified hypothesis, and  simplicity. Relevance must take into account asking the right question. This means a hypothesis is not just formed without some foundation. If one were to say ghosts exist without foundation, this would not be considered scientific or a cogent hypothesis. The hypothesis must be testable. This does not mean that it has to be directly observable. Theoretical physics uses advanced mathematics to explore the nature of the subatomic universe. Only when particle accelerators become more powerful is when new particles can be observed directly.  There are times in which it is not so much compatibility, but further modification of older theories. The Theory of Relativity did not reject Newtonian mechanics, but further explained them as they would function in a spacetime fabric. Gradually, if enough hypotheses  are accumulated this allows for a more descriptive depiction of nature. A hypothesis is also reliant on explanatory power. This refers to the process of observing and deducing information from the observable facts. This helps reject weak hypotheses that could contradict established facts. Out of this can come predictions about possible outcomes. The most important part of this stage is the establishment of simplicity. The more simple a theory is the better. Science is usually viewed as a complicated subject. Scientist prefer simple explanations to natural phenomenon, because it makes a world of chaos seem more comprehensible. Planetary motion was once described by the system of epicycles. Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the kinematics better, because it is simple to understand. Planets move in an elliptical path, while line joining the sun ( to a planet )covers sweeps equal areas at equal intervals of time. The other law demonstrates the square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to to the cube of the semi-major axis of a particular orbit. These laws explain planetary motion along with gravitation in a lucid manner. 

      Experimentation is another phase in the scientific method. This is essential and the procedure must be documented for future duplication. Various tools can be employed in this task. It could include microscopes, linear particle accelerators, cyclotrons, telescopes, bunsen burners, or basic meter sticks. Sometimes an experiment can take place in a laboratory or public setting. It can involve subjects, but there are laws that prevent  human experimentation in certain medical areas. Animals are normally substituted in these instances, but this still generates controversy. All experiments will not be done the same way. There are several different types of experiments which included controlled experiments, natural experiments, and field experiments. Controlled experiments feature a managed sample and an independent variable. The independent variable is the effect that will be tested during experimentation. Natural experiments are reliant more so on variable observation. Field experiments attempt to examine phenomena in a particular setting outside the laboratory. 

Percy Julian at work in his laboratory 

There are numerous experiments that fall into these classifications. The Bandura experiment would be considered a controlled experiment. This experiment was designed to see if social behaviors were learned or gained  through imitation and observation , The  independent variable was the bobo doll in which an adult actor would hit the doll and then the child would watch. The child  would then be observed to see what they would do next. Natural experiments could appear in physics, astronomy, zoology, and natural history. It would be a challenge to make an experiment completely natural . That is why sometimes these experiments are semi-observational. Theoretical physics requires higher levels of mathematics seeing as it would be difficult to experiment directly. 

Albert Einstein doing physics  

Field experiments also have their challenges. Ecology during its early beginning was attempting to create a model that explained elements of all ecosystem in a single cycle. This did not produce a single model considering environments are highly active with the water cycle, climate, weather, There are also other factors that are considered in an experiment. The place, time, and possible factors that could effect outcomes.

     Observation  and the gathering of data also contributes to the scientific method. Before the development of the scientific method, pure science was based off of mostly observation. This was limited in many respects. What we see can be different from reality. Atoms cannot be detected by human eyes. Powerful electron microscopes can make visibility possible. While certain objects can be detected there remains the question of what are the  specific attributes.When observing objects on large and small scales there are complications. There can be errors in measurement, which can cause problems with an experiment. These measurements have to be as precise a possible. One mistake could either ruin or effect an outcome of the experiment. Predictions will be put to the test during the process. Observations sometimes lead to more questions. One example is with the concept of particle wave duality. A particle can be a wave, but still maintain its atomic structure. This still is perplexing to many physicists. Neuroscience has observed the nature and structure of the brain. The localization of function has shown it is probably one of the most complex organic structures known. This then leads many to wonder why did the human brain evolve the way it did. Data can be gathered, but it must be interpreted and explained. Simply having the data does not give an entire synopsis of nature. It has to be deciphered to solve the question or mystery.
       After these stages are completed a conclusion can be made and the process can be restarted. The data can help provide an articulation of what occurred. The scientist can now make statements on whether the hypothesis is acceptable or can be discarded. The conclusion provides a summery of findings and methodologies. The conclusion should also reveal what possible limitations the experiment could have. Science combines both argument and discovery. The scientist is arguing that his or her theory is correct, while simultaneously uncovering new knowledge. Prior to the scientific method explanations for natural phenomena were either given by  religious or superstitious convictions. When new ideas in philosophy emerged science was gradually developing. The Age of Reason saw the rise of natural philosophers who wanted to revive the ancient and classical philosophical tradition. Without the Italian Renaissance previous to the Age of Reason, this would not have been possible. Logic and critical thinking are essential tools in any academic discipline, but are even   more pivotal in scientific fields. The Enlightenment saw the birth of the scientific method as a technique for discovering the behavior of the physical world. Science is not a monopoly of the West;It has a historical tradition throughout the globe. The scientific method has a universal appeal, because the process is efficient and is the easiest method for uncovering facts. As time progresses more discoveries will be made in physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry thanks to the scientific method.              

References 

Copi, Irving. Introduction to Logic . New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,1986. 

Barnes-Svarney, Patricia. Science Reference Desk. New York : Stonesong Press,1995.