The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process in which scientist in various field use to obtain knowledge or explanation of various phenomena. Prior to this method, pure science relied on observation. What one can see can be deceiving. The mysteries of the cosmos and the subatomic world require measurement . Physics gives humanity a mathematical expression of nature. The rise of more advanced mathematics allowed for science to become more precise. As a result it was easier to verify facts. While humanity finds answers, it leads to more questions. Science at its earliest roots was philosophical. The scientist seeks to discover facts and explain what they mean in a larger context. The process of the scientific method functions around several procedures: forming a hypothesis, experimentation, observation, prediction, formulation of laws, and then developing a theory. For a theory to be a fact it must be able to be reproduced. If it cannot be replicated in the same manner, then it is not a fact . This can only happen after a conclusion is made from the data collected. If a theory can pass through this criteria it will be scientific law.  There is another element to this that is rarely discussed. It is the desire for discovery. The curiosity to explore the unknown has driven humanity to many adventures. It should be understood that the goal is to reach as much precision as possible. Theories could later be altered or improved based on new findings. The scientific method is a constant process.
       The first step in this process requires a hypothesis. This stage happens when a question arises. Many of the great scientists began their quest for discovery by asking how the natural world works. It is pivotal to realize that it is better to state one does not know, then produce an incorrect answer. A level of research is required before embarking on an investigation.

The process of forming a hypothesis requires another set of steps. There a certain prerequisites that must be met prior to the hypothesis which include relevance, testable for the sake of experiment , compatibility with verified hypothesis, and  simplicity. Relevance must take into account asking the right question. This means a hypothesis is not just formed without some foundation. If one were to say ghosts exist without foundation, this would not be considered scientific or a cogent hypothesis. The hypothesis must be testable. This does not mean that it has to be directly observable. Theoretical physics uses advanced mathematics to explore the nature of the subatomic universe. Only when particle accelerators become more powerful is when new particles can be observed directly.  There are times in which it is not so much compatibility, but further modification of older theories. The Theory of Relativity did not reject Newtonian mechanics, but further explained them as they would function in a spacetime fabric. Gradually, if enough hypotheses  are accumulated this allows for a more descriptive depiction of nature. A hypothesis is also reliant on explanatory power. This refers to the process of observing and deducing information from the observable facts. This helps reject weak hypotheses that could contradict established facts. Out of this can come predictions about possible outcomes. The most important part of this stage is the establishment of simplicity. The more simple a theory is the better. Science is usually viewed as a complicated subject. Scientist prefer simple explanations to natural phenomenon, because it makes a world of chaos seem more comprehensible. Planetary motion was once described by the system of epicycles. Kepler's laws of planetary motion describe the kinematics better, because it is simple to understand. Planets move in an elliptical path, while line joining the sun ( to a planet )covers sweeps equal areas at equal intervals of time. The other law demonstrates the square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to to the cube of the semi-major axis of a particular orbit. These laws explain planetary motion along with gravitation in a lucid manner. 

      Experimentation is another phase in the scientific method. This is essential and the procedure must be documented for future duplication. Various tools can be employed in this task. It could include microscopes, linear particle accelerators, cyclotrons, telescopes, bunsen burners, or basic meter sticks. Sometimes an experiment can take place in a laboratory or public setting. It can involve subjects, but there are laws that prevent  human experimentation in certain medical areas. Animals are normally substituted in these instances, but this still generates controversy. All experiments will not be done the same way. There are several different types of experiments which included controlled experiments, natural experiments, and field experiments. Controlled experiments feature a managed sample and an independent variable. The independent variable is the effect that will be tested during experimentation. Natural experiments are reliant more so on variable observation. Field experiments attempt to examine phenomena in a particular setting outside the laboratory. 

Percy Julian at work in his laboratory 

There are numerous experiments that fall into these classifications. The Bandura experiment would be considered a controlled experiment. This experiment was designed to see if social behaviors were learned or gained  through imitation and observation , The  independent variable was the bobo doll in which an adult actor would hit the doll and then the child would watch. The child  would then be observed to see what they would do next. Natural experiments could appear in physics, astronomy, zoology, and natural history. It would be a challenge to make an experiment completely natural . That is why sometimes these experiments are semi-observational. Theoretical physics requires higher levels of mathematics seeing as it would be difficult to experiment directly. 

Albert Einstein doing physics  

Field experiments also have their challenges. Ecology during its early beginning was attempting to create a model that explained elements of all ecosystem in a single cycle. This did not produce a single model considering environments are highly active with the water cycle, climate, weather, There are also other factors that are considered in an experiment. The place, time, and possible factors that could effect outcomes.

     Observation  and the gathering of data also contributes to the scientific method. Before the development of the scientific method, pure science was based off of mostly observation. This was limited in many respects. What we see can be different from reality. Atoms cannot be detected by human eyes. Powerful electron microscopes can make visibility possible. While certain objects can be detected there remains the question of what are the  specific attributes.When observing objects on large and small scales there are complications. There can be errors in measurement, which can cause problems with an experiment. These measurements have to be as precise a possible. One mistake could either ruin or effect an outcome of the experiment. Predictions will be put to the test during the process. Observations sometimes lead to more questions. One example is with the concept of particle wave duality. A particle can be a wave, but still maintain its atomic structure. This still is perplexing to many physicists. Neuroscience has observed the nature and structure of the brain. The localization of function has shown it is probably one of the most complex organic structures known. This then leads many to wonder why did the human brain evolve the way it did. Data can be gathered, but it must be interpreted and explained. Simply having the data does not give an entire synopsis of nature. It has to be deciphered to solve the question or mystery.
       After these stages are completed a conclusion can be made and the process can be restarted. The data can help provide an articulation of what occurred. The scientist can now make statements on whether the hypothesis is acceptable or can be discarded. The conclusion provides a summery of findings and methodologies. The conclusion should also reveal what possible limitations the experiment could have. Science combines both argument and discovery. The scientist is arguing that his or her theory is correct, while simultaneously uncovering new knowledge. Prior to the scientific method explanations for natural phenomena were either given by  religious or superstitious convictions. When new ideas in philosophy emerged science was gradually developing. The Age of Reason saw the rise of natural philosophers who wanted to revive the ancient and classical philosophical tradition. Without the Italian Renaissance previous to the Age of Reason, this would not have been possible. Logic and critical thinking are essential tools in any academic discipline, but are even   more pivotal in scientific fields. The Enlightenment saw the birth of the scientific method as a technique for discovering the behavior of the physical world. Science is not a monopoly of the West;It has a historical tradition throughout the globe. The scientific method has a universal appeal, because the process is efficient and is the easiest method for uncovering facts. As time progresses more discoveries will be made in physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry thanks to the scientific method.              

References 

Copi, Irving. Introduction to Logic . New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,1986. 

Barnes-Svarney, Patricia. Science Reference Desk. New York : Stonesong Press,1995. 

          

 

Carl Sagan 1966 CBS Interview on the Possibilities of Extraterrestrial Life

This is a CBS interview with Carl Sagan produced in 1966. The astronomer became a popular figure with the PBS program Cosmos and his books. Sagan was in many ways ahead of his time, figuring out the nature of Venus' atmosphere and believing extraterrestrial life was a possibility. To date there are several Earth like planets that have been discovered outside the Solar System. Humanity has not been able to reach these planets for direct observation, but it could be teeming with life. There opens  a new opportunity for expansion in biology. Astrobiology will become more important as humanity explores and finds more organisms in space.