Hedgehogs Are At Risk of Extinction

 

Hedgehogs are at risk of extinction. The hedgehog  population in Europe has been reduced. The data on hedgehogs was collected by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The hedgehog is now classified as near threatened species. This decline in European hedgehog population is the result of habitat destruction. Hedgehogs migrate in response and find their way into gardens. The concern is that pesticides harm them. Efforts are being made for home owners to make their gardens safe for hedgehogs. Fears are mounting that the hedgehog will disappear by 2050. The expansion of roads makes life more precarious for hedgehogs. This forces them to cross roads for food and mates. Being hit by cars contributed to the reduction of hedgehog populations. Agricultural activity and industrial production destroyed hedgehog habitats over a number of years. This will negatively impact the ecosystem. Hedgehogs consume insects and without them the insect population would grow. It is possible that hedgehogs could be a natural insect deterrent for gardens. When any organism disappears the rest of the environment is effected. The new risk to hedgehogs reveals that any animal could fall into risk of endangerment, when previously secure. Ecological damage reduction should be taken into consideration with the building of new infrastructure.  

Colossal Squid Seen On Video

 

The Ocean is full of life. What the ecosystem and organisms residing there remain a mystery. The colossal squid was filmed for the first time. Now there is video confirmation of this type of cephalopod. The camera was able to capture the squid at a depth of  600 meters. Many questions are going to arise from this new footage. The behavior of the colossal squid is unknown. More research is required to understand how the organism functions in their natural habitat. Marine biologist speculate this squid shown on video is adolescent age. The colossal squid is believed to grow up to 7 meters. The total weight of this organism can be up to 500 kg. The colossal squid was first identified in 1925. Prior to this scientists and sailors could have seen these animals. The video confirmation only reveals how much is unknown about the Ocean. An estimated 2,000,000 marine species are in the Ocean. Zoologists and marine biologists have not classified them all. Large organism could be occupying most ocean floors and deep depths. The colossal squid must have an ability to illuminate its body. Depths that far in the ocean can be dark. The colossal squid's specific diet must be immense. Fish are a food supply, which could explain why these squids attain large size. With video cameras that can go deeper into the Ocean, marine biology will undergo rapid advancement. The colossal squid's eating habits, behavior, or possible migration patterns can become known. 

The Base of The Human Brain Illustration From De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septum (1543)

 

Andreas Vesalius wrote De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septum, which revolutionized medicine. The seven volume work was the most detailed text on human anatomy. Vesalius was able to get bodies for dissection and this enabled him to give descriptions of the human body. Many of his discoveries disproved Claudius Galen's medical assertions. Galen's concepts had been dominant since the Roman Empire. Galen did not have the advantage of cadavers for dissection. The impressive element of Vesalius' work is the detailed illustrations of organs and their systems. The image of the human brain is the most incredible. The illustration shows the base of the brain. What can be seen are the cerebellum, olfactory bulbs, and optic nerves. The left and right hemispheres show both fissures and convolutions. The drawing is precise to a contemporary medical text. What was missing from Humani Corpis Fabrica was the depiction of neurons. The reason was a limitation of technology. Andreas Vesalius did not have access to a microscope. Without such tools certain parts of the human body could not be detected. Vesalius did not fully comprehend the brain's physiology. The understanding  of neurotransmitters and electrical impulses through the brain cells would come centuries later. Surgeons and doctors probably had a suspicion that the brain was responsible for the senses. The challenge was proving transduction to be true. The human brain is the most complex organ of the body. It controls movement, consciousness, thought, and involuntary biological function. There is more to uncover about this intricate organ. Vesalius put emphasis on an observational methods. The teaching of medicine and surgery changed to a more empirical approach.  

The Discovery of The Promachocrinus Fragarius

 

Marine biology discovered a new organism. Antarctica is home to a sea based species known as promachocrinus fragaris. The recent detection reveals there is more work to be done in the fields of zoology and marine biology. The common name for this creature is the Antarctic  strawberry feather star.  Promachocrinus fragaris has what appears to be 20 tentacle like structures. Zoologists sometimes call them arms.  The nubs on its body do resemble fruit in shape. Hence why it was given the name. The morphology of this organism has evolved for ocean floor travel. The body of this organism contains cirri. The cirri are circular like bumps on its body. The structures have small claws which enable promachocrinus fragaris to grip to the seafloor. The sea lifeform falls under the class Crinoidea. Starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and sand dollars are a part of this class. The unusual aspect of the organisms morphology is the number of appendages. Most feather stars have 10, while  promachocrinus fragaris has 10 more. The reason it took so long to detect this animal was due to location. The promachocrinus fragaris was found 1.7 km (3, 840 ft)  below the surface. According to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography finding new species is common. The challenge is classifying them correctly and giving formal names. The ocean remains a mystery and the nature of the seafloor is more complex than previously thought. Various types of fish, starfish, and completely different organisms could reside on the seafloor. Barriers prevent humankind from fully reaching that area. The possibility does remain that new species are emerging, but have not been discovered. The promachocrinus fragaris is an invertebrate, but little is known about its physiology. Overtime, more information will be collected allowing for a deeper understanding of deep sea lifeforms. 

The Subarachnoidal Lymphatic-like Membrane Has Been Discovered

 

An incredible discovery has been made in neuroanatomy. A new structure known as the subarachnoidal lymphatic-like membrane was detected. The previously unknown anatomical structure was discovered through neuro-imagining and techniques developed by microbiology. The structures function most likely acts as a protective barrier. The area can be a place in which immune cells monitor the brain from infections and inflammation. The discovery was made through research by the University of Rochester and University of Copenhagen. The new information reveals much about the connection between cerebrospinal fluid and immune system response. The brain has a method of waste disposal and protection. The common understanding was that the meningeal layer had only three layers. Those layers included the dura, arachnoid, and pia layers. The new layer is located between the arachnoid and pia layers.   The newly discovered membrane is similar to mesothelium. These membranes are designed to protect organs in the body. The subarachnoidal lymphatic-like membrane is a much thinner membrane, but still very selective about what molecules pass through to get access to cerebrospinal fluid. The discovery can be utilized to have a greater understanding of diseases of the brain. Abnormalities in the membrane could have a role in multiple sclerosis, dementia, and severe central nervous system infections. The clue given was that a larger amount of immune cell gather in the SLYM during inflammation. This also happens during aging. The brain does change with age. Knowing more about the brain can ensure the best methods of maintaining cognitive health. More information can also aid in treating traumatic brain injuries.  The subarachnoidal lymphatic-like membrane contains its own central nervous system immune cells. The discovery of this anatomical structure demonstrates there is much more to learn about immune system response and the nervous system.    

Alcor Life Extension Advances Cryonics

 

Alcor Life Extension  is reported to have 199 people in cryonic preservation. Most of the people who decided to undergo this procedure were diagnosed with severe illnesses that do not have a cure. The idea is to keep them in cryonic preservation until biomedical science finds solutions. The process is not just a simple freezing of a human body. The body is placed in an ice bath. Then a CPR device is used to ensure proper blood circulation. Medications are also applied for the purpose of cell protection. The bodies are in reality are not frozen, but vitrified. The people are contained in liquid nitrogen.  Preventing blood clots and abnormal blood pressure are the major objectives to make the process successful. There are concerns about cryonic preservation. The bioethics make critics wonder  if some are attempting to attain immortality. The people in the facility are technically deemed legally dead. Biologically, they are not. Cryonics from this perspective seems like inducing  the ill into a coma or long slumber. The process has not shown to be effective. Then what must be considered is that the cures for cancer or ALS might never be found. That means the people preserved would just remain that way . Alcor Life Extension will not be in business forever. The restoration of consciousness and acclimating the revived could be more difficult than anticipated. Cryonic preservation as a biomedical technology would be limited. However, if it could reach a higher  of advancement  it could be applied to space travel. This could be a solution to space exploration to galaxies lightyears away. Preserving astronauts would make space travel much easier for long missions. Knowledge is limited  about the long term effects of cryonic preservation. At the moment it is not a practical solution to biomedical conditions or the challenges of space travel.   

The Challenges of Rapid Technological and Scientific Advancement

Science and technology has built the modern world. Within a century modes of transportation, communication, and access to knowledge have vastly increased. The rapid advancement of science and technology that occurred in the 20th century will continue into the next, but there are some unintended consequences that come with such a change. Some changes may even be potential threats or dangerous. Human civilization has reached a point that it can manipulate the environment, produce substances that do not occur in nature, and even alter its own biology. Science and technology has provided multiple benefits to society, there has been negative repercussions from its misuse. The development of weapons of war, environmental destruction, and the possibility of eugenic transhumanism are the products of the abuse of scientific knowledge. What should be the march of progress may become a dystopian science fiction nightmare. Only with proper regulation and understanding of science and technology can prevent such a negative outcomes . The public requires a greater comprehension of  technology and the scientific fields to better navigate a constantly changing world. The entire globe has been transformed by discoveries related to physics, biology, astronomy, and engineering. Knowledge progresses so fast along with computing power, that artificial intelligence is in reach. What must be prevented is humanity inducing its own demise through the power it has amassed from technological advancement. The challenges of scientific and technological advancement are the ethics of use, the negative impact of rapid change in society, and the possible use of scientism for nefarious purposes.  

      Engineering has produced many marvels . The applied science also created more lethal weapons. Nuclear weapons and there  proliferation has been a global problem. The only time nuclear weapons were used in combat was in World War II. Japan's cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki sustained the world's first nuclear attacks. Seeing the devastation these weapons caused made other countries want to acquire them.   The Cold War was period in which the likelihood of nuclear war was high. Even though it was avoided and the Soviet Union collapsed nations still seek to expand arsenals. The United States, Russia, the UK, France, India , Pakistan, Israel, North Korea , and China   have them. The technology is so powerful that they were only used twice so far in human history. Nuclear power was beneficial to civilization. This was an efficient way of providing power to cities and towns. Nuclear weapons created another threat to survival. Testing caused more long term damage to environments and public health. Radiation and fallout from nuclear blasts last longer than the actual detonation. People close to testing zones got cancer or some form of radiation sickness. The environment can be damaged by radioactive pollution of the atmosphere. Underground nuclear testing can cause further damage to an ecosystem. Oceans can also be effected by radioactive pollution. 

There are few weapons that can match the destructive power of a massive  nuclear arsenal. The arms race comes at a cost. Precious resources are redirected to war instead of useful research. Fusion reactors could meet the world's power needs , however progress is lacking. Public trust has also been eroded, because nuclear power has been give a negative connotation. The advancement of nuclear physics and the discovery of the mass energy equivalence  ushered in the atomic age. The nations of the world have not used nuclear power responsibly, even with the assistance of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Nuclear weapons will not go away unless every country agrees to their gradual abolition. 

       Information technology has radically changed commerce, the distribution of knowledge,  and entertainment. The birth of the internet, more powerful computers, and social media have altered the way people obtain information. The development of quantum computers will allow greater transfer ad storage of human knowledge.  The problems that emerged were unforeseen consequences. Cybercrime,  government surveillance , and  hacking would not have been possible without computers. Censorship has gotten a new medium to invade with numerous tech companies instituting rules that make them appear as if they are publishers. What could have been a potential for promotion of free speech and open exchange of ideas is now under attack. Cybercrime is a more serious problem than misinformation or mendacious claims written over the internet. Identity theft , phising, and other types of scams have become more common. The exchange of personal information without the consent of users on numerous platforms continues. Some regulation may be required to prevent abuse or exploitation. 

The more terrifying development is the use of information technology for mass surveillance. Governments around the world both democratic and authoritarian spy on their citizens. Communication over e-mails or cell phone calls. The violation of privacy and basic rights can happen without a person even being aware of it. No government has the right to spy on its citizens. Mass surveillance will only get worse, because more advanced technology makes it possible.  Facebook and Twitter accounts may be subject to mass surveillance in the distant future. Artificial intelligence  and automation poses challenges related to economics. There could be job loss from both skilled and unskilled workers due to automation. Theoretically, a robot that can produce more than a human being on an assembly line. Robots would build other robots. If machines become too self aware, they might challenge organ life for supremacy. This scenario may seen like an idea of of science fiction, but could happen at the end of the century. Robots could be utilized for military combat or policing. Using robots or information technology for war or control will only have lugubrious effects on society. 

     There have been predictions that at some point humankind and machine will merge. Transhumanism describes the concept  in which people will use technology to enhance human physiology and biology. Humankind may be able to control and guide its own evolution. Medicine, surgery, and contraception are examples of how people are controlling or manipulating their own biology. Genetic engineering opens up possibilities related to life extension and advancement of health science. Genetically  inherited diseases could be cured. Humanity would have more cures for diseases, rather than a series of treatments. The issue is not about combating disease, rather it is the problem of people enhancing themselves biologically  for the sake of it. 

The merger of information technology combined with genetic manipulation will create a class of biologically enhanced human beings. Such enhancements biological or physiological could be mass marketed to the public. The fear is that this will become a new type of eugenics, in which people are subject to selective breeding. However, this would be a step further than cosmetic surgery. Humans could changes themselves so much they are an entirely different species. The world may come close to resembling that of  A Brave New World and Frankenstein . There remains a risk attempting to manipulate genes and biology. The rise CRISPR ( clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats )  technology indicates that humanity will at some stage be able to guide its own biological evolution. What CRISPR  technology does is enables the location of a specific section of DNA inside the cell. This makes gene editing more efficient . Biology, genetics, medicine, and health science is unlocking the full potential of human bodies. The intention should not be to turn people into science experiments. 

       The ethics of use must be considered when creating and introducing new technology to the public. The myth is that science and technology changed human society for the worst. The negative consequences came about through abuse of knowledge and power. The misuse of scientific knowledge involves  utilizing  it for avarice or malicious intent. Nuclear weapons were made for the purpose of annihilating an enemy. Nuclear power provides electricity. The difference related to use is one contributes to a functioning civilization. The ethics of use of science and technology must follow certain guidelines. The knowledge and technology developed must contribute to human welfare. It should assist in well being, prosperity, and general health. The scientific and technological knowledge should benefit the majority of the world's population. Too often a wealthy elite have the majority of benefits before everyone else. A separation between science and warfare must occur. Technology and scientific information used for war endangers human existence. The goal should be to ensure civilization's survival not its destruction. Educating the public about technology and science should be a priority. Showing how to use technology and scientific knowledge in an ethical manner can be a means of preventing future abuse.  The ethics of use provides a pathway to manage the unknown consequences of  technological and scientific advancement. 

     Rapid change can have serious  repercussions. Air pollution, climate change, reliance  on fossil fuels, plastic and toxic waste are the consequences of humanity's fast technological advancement. The environment and Earth's ecosystems suffered as a result. Various species of animals and plants are at risk. Overtime, deforestation and desertification can threaten human populations. Carbon emissions generated from human activity exacerbate the green house effect, which causes dramatic change in climate. More floods, the gradual melting of the Polar ice caps, lethal heatwaves, and more extreme weather events are linked to climate change. Fossil fuels create hostility between nations. Oil has in particular caused much conflict and environmental damage from off shore drilling. Plastic production has made it so that unused parts of the material are discarded on various lands. Hazardous waste becomes more difficult to store. The more people consume the more waste is produced. Landfills may not be enough to ensure public health and safety.  Technological advancement came so quick, that few anticipated the aftermath. The industrial revolution set human history on the path of  mass production and technology based societies. The environmental conditions only worsened  gradually. Solutions do exist to the challenge of rapid change induced by scientific advancement. New innovations can confront environmental degradation  . Solar and wind power can contribute to the world's energy needs. Electric cars can help with the reliance on fossil fuels. A combination of recycling or waste to energy methods could be used to deal with more hazardous waste. 

       Technological and scientific advancement could create a situation in which scientism can be  used for malevolent intent. Scientism is not an extremist   ideology, however it has the potential to be molded into one. The term has occasionally been used in a pejorative connotation.  If human civilization has mastered so much knowledge, then it could apply it rigidly  to everyday life. What could emerge is a technocratic bureaucracy that governs in which others have little input. Experts would not be challenged or debated in this system.  The promotion of science  and technology should be lauded, but there should be no attempts to make it into another religion. The mistake is thinking one subject or idea has all the answers. Science just like any other academic discipline can be prone to error. This is why the scientific method is used to verify facts. Theories must be tested rigorously to be considered true. The aim should be for science to be objective. The problem is that people naturally  have certain biases, which influence their thought. Being zealously  devoted to a single belief or  ideology  can result in dogmatic thought. Science was not immune from such behavior. The concepts such as epicycles,  the theory of ether, and  the theory of humors had scientists devoted to them, even when they were proven wrong. There exists no academic subject that was completely error free. The best way to solve this issue is to promote critical thinking. People should be encouraged to question the information or knowledge they are presented. Science thrives on questioning natural phenomena . Only when people have a greater understanding of technology and science can the challenges that come from development be managed. 

Outer Space Can Change Brain Size

Human bodies were evolved for environments with gravity . This causes complications with long term space travel. Living in a microgravity environment can result in changes in the muscular and skeletal system. Muscle and bone mass can decrease being in space for long periods of time. Ocular structure can also be dramatically altered. What scientists have found out is that the brain can also undergo changes. The human brain can enlarge in space. Health complications can be possible threats to astronauts attempting to colonize other planets in the distant future. The study showed from MRIs from eleven astronauts showed these changes. The problem is related to body fluids and the absence of an oxygen atmosphere. There still are many unknown factors about what being in Outer Space can do to the human body. If there is going to be a mission to Mars, there should be a full assessment of likely health risks.   

The Discovery of The Adalatherium

A major discovery fossil discovery was made of an animal that was alive during the Late Cretaceous period. This animal is now known as the Adalatherium hui. The remains were found in Madagascar. The Adalatherium hui is classified as a gondwanatherian mammal. The age of the fossil remains are about 66 million years old. This animal is a strange addition to now extinct organisms. The size of  Adalatherium is much bigger compared to other mammals of the the Late Cretaceous. The skeleton was mostly complete and well preserved. Scientists have speculated that the evolution of this animal was related to its isolated environment. More mammals could have existed on the large continent of Gondwana. There are probably more animals that existed during various geological eras. The problem is that there fossils were not preserved for paleontologists to study. Adalatherium hui almost resembles a opossum. The classification can be debated, but it seems likely that it either was a rodent or marsupial.  The claws and feet indicate it could have been able to climb or burrow. Natural history  is rapidly expanding and there are greater possibilities for the discovery of  extinct  prehistoric animals.   

The Meaning of Human Existence (2014)

The Meaning of Human Existence is a book written by Edward O. Wilson a pioneer in the field of sociobiology. Edward Wilson is both a naturalist and biologist who has spent decades studying the links between genes and behavior.Detractors claimed his views were too mechanistic or eugenic. Critics failed to fully comprehend the concepts of sociobiology. Organisms can be the products of both their genes and environment. Humanity is the product of both. The constant mystery is why organisms and biomes evolved the to what they are now. The Meaning of Human Existence  discusses science, philosophy, and its relation to existential thought. Wilson argues that humanity has acquired enough knowledge and experience to question what is existence and humanity's role in the cosmos. Edward Wilson also is convinced that this can be done in a testable manner. His perspective is that science and the humanities have grown too far apart. The problem with modern accumulation of knowledge is that it has become too grounded in specialization. He eloquently describes this about  this phenomenon when referring to academia. There is a human epoch in which people will be able to control and manipulate their own biology. This advancement does produce a dilemma as Wilson proclaims in the text. Wilson asks a few questions that have  been with humanity since it became curious. Does humanity have a special place in the universe ? What is the meaning of our personal lives ?  One would suspect that humanity may be unique in the sense that it is the dominant species on Earth and controls the biosphere to a degree. These questions of existence and meaning have been puzzling philosophers, scientists, and religious scholars. Such an answer would have to be a complex one. This may not necessarily be true. Edward Wilson gives a synopsis of human evolution, natural history, philosophy, and provides an explanation into the nature of existence. This is articulated in a series of essays in the book. The Meaning of  Human Existence  will make a reader see the world and universe in a completely different way.  
     The first essay discusses the connotations of meaning. Wilson states "in ordinary usage" the word "meaning " implies intention, intention implies design, and design implies a designer." This is more of the religious conviction of meaning. The other concept of meaning is as Wilson explains are the events of history and their networks of physical cause and effect. Events as Edward Wilson writes can be random, however they can later probability of later events. Reaching the full understanding of meaning would require a worldview of science. To answer such questions Wilson proposes that there should be a collaboration between the humanities and sciences. The vast body of human knowledge has become to separated, even when there are numerous connections. Wilson is proposing a scientific based understanding of human existence through means of self-understanding. As there is a push by some for greater understanding it poses a dilemma. The possibilities of manipulating human biology or even taking control of our own evolution is a reality. The power of genetic engineering and transhumanism is in civilization's grasp, but the problem remains should such actions be done. Wilson expresses that society should understand fully why humanity evolved in such a way before proceeding to alter it.

The question of existence requires multiple disciples to answer. Such questions are either discussed in terms of proximate or ultimate causation. This relates to living organisms and life function. Human beings have cells and  organ systems, but the reason why remains a mystery. These two techniques of explanation are required to reveal the significance of life. There is one flaw with Wilson's argument. Humanity did not "emerge entirely on its own."  Through evolution humans became the sole survivors of a primate species. Early humans were part of an ecological system much like today. Each organism functions on a trophic level requiring others. Relations could either be symbiotic or parasitic. Organisms do not simply emerge on their own. Evolution is one part of the emergence of species, but environment is critical. A change in geological conditions radically altered animal as well as plant life. If were not for the extinction of the dinosaurs and the rise of  mammal life there would not be humanity. What did emerge on its own was human civilization. No other animal on Earth has produced civilization like humankind. Music, science, and the arts are a testament to humankind's unique skill. Edward Wilson is correct on one position. Humanity is not here for a specific goal  nor   to answer to a higher power. This is why wisdom as Wilson explains based off the comprehension of ourselves should be our guide rather than piety. Doing this could be humankind's only salvation and key to the improvement of  persistent societal ills. The public must have a strong understanding of human biological evolution and history. 

        Human evolution must be fully understood if one is to understand the world and the societies that emerged. The second essay in Wilson's book explains that human history does not begin with the rise of civilization. He proclaims "the human condition is a product of history- not just six millennia of civilization but very much further back, across hundreds of millennia." Evolution explains much of animal and human behavior. There is a level of eusociality present in the animal kingdom. The term describes the true social condition and how a group raises offspring across multiple generations. Organisms that show eusociality appeared late in biological evolutionary history. Compared to insects and bacteria  the emergence of humans is fairly recent. The origins of human behavior began with a change in diet and anatomical change. Eusociality emerged in australopithecines when their diet became based around meat. This cause the intestines to become shorter, resulting in more metabolic function shifting to other areas of the body. Gradually, the cranial volume would increase and the brains of  primates would become more complex. The rise of hunting and campsites only caused eusociality to become more entrenched. These early structures required both cooperation and competition to function. The members that were part of this were provided shelter and protection. Humanity gained a level of social intelligence, which required calculated thoughts. The two early primates that provide some clues to the riddle of humanity are the homo habilis and the homo erectus. 

Homo Habilis

Two million years ago the homo habilis existed. These animals had human like bodies, but their cranial capacity was smaller. It has been estimated close to or less than 600 cubic centimeters. From homo habilis onward the cranial volume would increase. Homo erectus would gain more cranial capacity at 900 cc. Homo sapiens would see an increased cranial volume of 1,400 cc. This dramatic change in the brain was one of the most amazing events in biological history. The structures of the brain became more complex and allowed for more intelligence. The increase in intelligence also meant that social behavior was going to change. This would alter the course of world history. The genus homo could soon become the dominant species of the globe. Paleontologists and evolutionary biologists have the task of trying to figure out the social nature of the early primates. These forces are either part biological or environmental. There are competing theories that have emerged in the scientific community which attempted to describe the rise of advanced social behavior. 

Homo Erectus 

Kin selection is one theory that describes individuals favoring relatives and offspring within a group. This theory attempts to explain altruism that occurs among members of the same group. The reasoning behind such social behavior is that more genes can be passed on based around inclusive fitness. Inclusive fitness refers to the combined effects of reproduction and survival upon the individual. A group that helps one another at least in this theory has a better chance of passing on genes through altruism, rather than split competition. Multilevel selection has an opposing view. Natural selections operates on two different levels. Individual selection places another organism in competition or collaboration with another. There is a group selections in which units compete with other groups. Although it is difficult to test or  form an experiment for these theories, it seems that nature follows the multilevel selection based on observations of animal behavior. When applied to human behavior it become more apparent. People compete for jobs, resources, and land at an individual level. Nations are a collective and compete with each other for world influence. Chimpanzees compete with other groups of Chimpanzees for territory. Primates compete for mates on an individual level. Edward O. Wilson reveals that he favors this theory, because to a degree natural history confirms it. However, both theories must be vigorously tested to become scientific fact. 

What should also be understood is that evolution does not follow a linear path. It is like a tree with multiple branches. What binds the homo group, ardipithecus group, pananthropus group, and australopithecus group was that they probably emerged from a common genetic ancestor. While humanities can provide answers to early forms of art, it is important that there is an understanding of the anatomical,biological, and physiological elements of human nature. Sadly, the public has either a limited comprehension of evolution or a huge amount of suspicion. Wilson does make a cogent point in stating " what counts for long term survival is an intelligent self-understanding , based upon a greater independence of thought than that tolerated today in even our most democratic societies." The lugubrious aspect of the situation is that societies that claim to be free and democratic are more closed minded. Evolution is either attacked by the right as being false or the left as promoting justifications for an unequal society. Such accusations  lack credibility, but they have gained popularity among the public and more so in the United States. The real challenge is not only having a collaboration among the humanities and science, but defeating a powerful anti-intellectual movement. The teaching of intelligent design or fabricated history continues to stifle generations of students. If Wilson's vision is to be a reality it will require a complete restructuring of the public school system and a new approach to pedagogy. 

        The discussion of human existence will inevitably lead to questions of ethics. Edward Wilson poses the question to the reader : are human beings naturally righteous or prone to malevolence? Wilson seems to believe that people can be both a bit of both. The essay "Evolution and Our Inner Conflict" gives readers an examination into the debate of nature versus nurture. Wilson does clarify that humanity is not driven solely by instincts, but it cannot be ignored they are part of human behavior. Concepts such as right and wrong may just be artificial constructions to justify behavior that is either controversial, questionable, or abhorrent. Alleles the multiple forms of the same gene do effect human beings, just like their environments.   

Psychologically there is a desire to be part of a social network. This is also biologically based through multilevel selection. Humans can be friends or competitors. They may work in groups or on an individual level. The desire to be part of a group was most likely based on survival in the evolutionary past. A sense of belonging is not only helpful for one's physical security, but sense of worth. There is a negative consequence of this social behavior. Edward Wilson explains : "an amplification of this evidently inborn predestination leads with frightening ease to racism and religious bigotry." This genetic predisposition to group collectivist behavior could cause as Wilson puts it "good people doing bad things ."To explain human atrocities away by behavior is too simplistic. It could be that in reality there are not righteous people; just others who are more in control of their impulses. There is a reason children must have discipline and there are laws in place. Humans are still animals and to a degree have negative impulses. What makes humanity unique is that it has developed self control and systems of order to manage behavior. Altruism relative to biology is more of a practical mechanism, rather than an ethical one. There is a conflict between the altruist behavior and the selfish behavior which developed during human evolution. Yet, it is difficult to say that humanity is both simultaneously sinner and saint. The increase in brain complexity in terms of memory, reasoning, and the prefrontal cortex demonstrate that we are a rational and calculating species. Calculating a outcome may not always involve  ethical or altruistic  conduct. This partially explains why humanity engages in war and murder. This does not involve all members, however it takes significant portions. Mankind may be more malevolent than Edward O. Wilson realizes. Philosophy has struggled with the question of what is ethical and science may not be able to answer such a question. Psychology does have some indications. By stander effect may be the result of the desire to survive (driven by genetic elements ), rather than  take a risk helping someone in danger. Environment is a powerful force on people. To say that genetics is solely the basis of human behavior would be incorrect. The debate is not whether it is nature versus nature. The real inquiry is how much to nature and nurture collaborate with one another. When this interaction is understood for these two factors only then will there be a lucid explanation into human behavior. 

      Wilson makes the argument for the unity of human knowledge. Since the Enlightenment civilization has advanced technologically and scientifically at a fast rate. Humanity explained the existence and the world in terms of natural philosophy. Francis Bacon called this "the empire of man ." The Enlightenment was the quest to master rationality and to create a world based on wisdom. These ideas were effectively abandoned by the 19th century. The rise of Romanticism as an artistic and ideological movement challenged the reason based system of the Enlightenment. The humanities would then become separate from the sciences. As science became more rapid in its discoveries, they were not able to solve humanities pressing problems. The French Revolution, the rise of Napoleon and then his fall resulted in a backlash. Europe would return to political conservatism in the form of monarchy. Revolutions would happen again in 1848, but it seemed as if the dreams of rational societies based on natural rights were still elusive. Philosophy, the arts, and sciences became distant from one another. There is no reason why they should be. Edward O. Wilson wants there to be a renaissance of human knowledge. The sciences and the humanities must collaborate with one another and become the core of modern education. What hinders modern academia is that specialization has been the foundation. Scholars and students must have at least a basic understanding of other subjects. A university for example should not just be a place for learning or career building, but an area that discovers new knowledge. Literature, art, and theater are just as important as biology, physics, mathematics,chemistry,  and astronomy. To reach self-understanding there must be a full comprehension of knowledge. Humanity can be curious. That tendency seems to be strongest when it is related to anthropocentricity. When information is relative to the human experience it generates more interest. The sciences and humanities are linked by the common origin being born of the human mind. The human brain is the most complex organ producing thoughts, emotions, and the creativity seen in all subjects. This explains why humanities are also an important part o humanity. 

       The text poses a question in one essay asking what would we use to impress extraterrestrials. Certainly, our technology would not be on the same level. However, our art and various cultures would be something they would not have seen. The chapter " The All Importance of  the Humanities" demonstrates that humanities or sciences should not be presented as separate, The unique cultural evolution that has emerged since human existence has to be one of the most astounding phenomenons. Humanities is the product of cultural evolution and it can be seen early on in human history. Cave paintings show that our early ancestors had creative minds. 

Gene culture coevolution demonstrate that natural selection is still acting upon human beings. Both genetic and cultural changes can effect the trajectories of one another. Music, writing, and art are the products of humankind's ambition to create and be innovative. Wilson describes the humanities best as : " They are a natural history of culture, and our most private and precious heritage." Science and the humanities have a common goal of giving a description of existence. These two fields of study only differ in method and particular techniques to reach an answer. As applied science continues to advance in areas biotechnology,nanotechnology, and robotics humanity will need some form of reasoning and ideological guidance. There will be major economic, social, and political changes that will  spread across the globe. Robotics will change the labor market and possibly cause workers to lose jobs. There is more human migration than ever before. Genetic variation of the human species is increasing, which is the result of mass movements of populations. Humanities could be a means of creating a stable world in one of constant change and chaos. Edward O. Wilson warns that we should not depart away from our genetically inherited nature. This he believes is expressed in the humanities. It may already be too late to preserve the biological human nature as Wilson refers to it. Transhumanism will definitely be the wave of the future. Like any technology or scientific advancement it can either be used for positive or nefarious purposes. Holding on to humanities may preserve society from becoming automatons. Humanities has a place in society, but transhumanism will also be present. Evolution and biology can be erratic, it is just now humanity will gain more control over it. There should not be trepidation in regards to this change. If technoscientific advancement is regulated serious problems can be avoided. Wilson is correct to support the humanities, yet  the words of caution seem overly fearful about technoscientific change. The humanities will be safe as long as humanity has a desire to create art, music, film, and literature. 

        There is the possibility that we are not alone in the universe. Wilson suggests that there may be some form of live beyond the Solar System. Earth was born at least 4.54 billion years ago and as time past life emerged. The earliest forms of life were microorganisms. Microbes may be the species that truly rule the galaxy. If humanity discovers life it would probably be microbes. If it is on land or sea it microbes would still be the majority. Earth contains a multitude of microbes. This includes protists, fungi, algae, archaeans, and picozoans. Astronomers and astrophysicists have suggested that there are Earth like exoplanets, so the idea of microbes existing there does not seem like science fiction. 

The Milky Way Galaxy 

 Based on what is known about organisms that live in extreme environments on Earth (extremophiles ), harsh environments on other planets would not be a challenge for microbes. There are also microbes known as subterranean lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystems. They can be found in soil and rock fissures. Such organisms gain their energy form the Earth's rocks. Future space exploration may see even more exoplanets detected. Searching will require robots and space telescopes to search for life in Oceans or rock structures. When this book was published only 900 had been discovered and the numbers have increased since then. Finding life either unicellular or multicellular  would be an incredible achievement. Edward Wilson is skeptical that intelligent life would be prevalent. Although it is not impossible, it may just be rare. After all humans are different from other animals on Earth and it took millions of years of evolution to reach it current level of intelligence. When the discussion of  intelligent life form  existence is mentioned Wilson relies too much on speculation. There are assumptions that they would be land dwelling creatures, be relatively large, and would have cephalization. He provides an image of an anthropomorphized organism. This may not be the case if such organisms exist. Assuming that evolution functions in the same manner or differently depending on  the environment  extraterestrial life would look radically different from humans. Every animal on Earth has gone through some form of biological evolution and may continue to do so depending on conditions of their biomes. There is also the likelihood that many species both simple and advance would become extinct before humanity reaches them.  The Meaning of Human Existence  mentions how biodiversity is critical to survival of various species. This functions on three levels : ecosystems, species, and genes. Wilson has warned that humanity's disregard for the environment and playing roles in the accelerated extinction of particular species is an attack on humanity itself. Pollution and the use of fossil fuels has cause irreversible damage. Humanity may find itself extinct before finding other among the stars. Knowing this there could have been life in the universe, but was wiped out. There is a tendency to see the Earth as a unique and special place, but it is one of many planets. When more exoplanets are discovered this will open up more questions into the nature of existence. 

          The Meaning of Human Existence also discusses the concepts of free will and instinct. Wilson proclaims "instinct in humans is basically the same as instinct in animals." He goes on to say " however it is not  the genetically fixed, invariant behavior displayed by most animal species." The argument is that human beings use both reason and emotion, which creates this difference. People are more emotional, than rational. This projects itself in high risk behavior or deleterious actions. At times this would contradict the desire for survival. Human behavior is not entirely cultural or biological. It is a combination of both. To choose one over the other reduces a complex story of human evolution and environmental change. This is not to say that human nature is driven by simple instinct. The cerebrum that evolved in humans gave them the ability to have a wide range of learning and reasoning ability. Other animals require just instinct for survival. Sea turtles when they are born know to head to the sea when they hatch. The three spined sickleback fish changes its behavior when territory and mates are being sought after. The human brain evolved to contribute to survival. As social organization became more pivotal intelligence was require to keep the human species going. Humankind did not have the adaptations of claws, large teeth, or high running speed to compete with larger animals. That was why communication in the form of language was a major turning point in human history. Instinct allows organisms to have a sense of their surroundings and possibly warn of danger. If instinct has a biological basis this questions the concept of free will. Maybe people are not really in control of their choices. Free will and consciousness seem to be questions best left to philosophers rather than scientists. Neuroscience wants to  elucidate the nature of consciousness through a scientific method. The Brain Activity Map Project wants to document every element in regards to the change of neural activity of the human brain. Wilson poses a the question of free will's existence. He delineates it as this : " yes, if not in ultimate reality, then at least in the operational sense necessary for sanity and the perpetuation of the human species." There could be free will and it may have started when the first humans became self aware. The moment early genus homo species realized they were different from other animals could be the point in which some free will manifested. However, it is too early to make proclamations about free will or consciousness. More must be discovered about the human brain and biological evolution to make a conclusion. 

        The topic of religion inevitably will be mentioned in discourses on existence. The wonderful aspect of  The Meaning of Human Existence is that it does not avoid a controversial subject. All around the world there have been various peoples and civilizations who believe in a higher power. This is not just a sociological factor, but a biological one. Such beliefs may have been a survival mechanism in the Paleolithic and Neolithic past. It provided an explanation to the world and existence, when there was no other method of doing so. Creation myths as Edward Wilson explains were designed to keep cohesion in a tribal group. The problem with religion is rigid dogma, which has caused much conflict both in the past and in the present. Religion is caught in an Absolute Paradox as articulated by Soren  kierkegaard. Fixation on dogma is not only impractical it is impossible to achieve in praxis. Most religions would be difficult to follow perfectly. Everyone is not always going to be a good Christian, Jew, Muslim, Buddhist, Hindu, or other all the time. There is nothing wrong with having a belief system, the problem is irrational devotion to ideas that lack evidence or support. Dogma can even infect science. Scientism can also be similar to religion in its worship of the field. This would not be an alternative to the religious dogma that has been resurrected in the 21st century. The reason people keep their religion is because they want to convince themselves life has meaning and purpose. The idea that meaning is something that has to be discovered through thought and serious introspection holds too much uncertainty. There is also another matter which induces more trepidation. Death will come to us either by natural causes, disease, or murder. Many are comforted by the idea that their is the immortality of the soul or an afterlife. There is no evidence for an afterlife or a powerful deity that controls human destiny. Faith does not equate to fact. Edward Wilson articulates this as not a debate of fact versus faith, rather understanding what is existence on both a scientific and philosophical level. Dogma must be discarded  as well as the tribal gods and demons. This task is insuperable. It is almost shocking that in an age of advance science and technology, there are large sections of society that cling to superstition. Only with the promotion of scientific literacy can such religious fundamentalism be challenged. 

       The true meaning of human existence is not based on the act of creation, rather it is found in science and the natural history of the past. Humanities can explain the human condition, but science provides the technical articulation of natural phenomena. To have a full grasp of existence, an individual should obtain a strong knowledge base of both fields. Humanity may be an accident as the book suggests. Yet, this is not an argument for nihilism. There is an opportunity for greater freedom and wonder. There is promise with new technology that could improve health, infrastructure, or explore space further. This could be threatened or stopped if warfare, fanaticism, or anti-intellectual fervor becomes predominant. The Meaning of Human Existence   is an proposing a new paradigm of scientific humanism. Science and the humanities will be sued to improve civilization and society. There must be a counter to extremism represented in the form of creationism, climate change denial, or a general anti-science sentiment. With threats to humanity such as war, poverty, economic turmoil, or environmental decline the need for self-understanding is more important than ever. People must have the knowledge and tools to navigate a rapidly changing world. Cautious approaches should be made with new technologies and advancements. Too much is already known to stop the further manipulation of our own biology and environment. Providing an exact answer to human existence is just as arduous as providing solutions to the world's problems. Creation myths or explanations based on the religious or supernatural cannot answer such a complicated and intricate question. Doing so would be intellectually dishonest. It is worse to provide a wrong answer as truth,  than to say one simply does not know . There is an  answer to the meaning of human existence.Wilson sees the answer coming from both the humanities and science,because they have an origin in the human mind. Only then will humanity have a full understanding of existence. The Meaning of  Human Existence is a refreshing examination of science and the past of humankind . If humankind is to have a future it must comprehend the natural world and the organisms that reside in it. Whatever the true meaning of existence is, the possibilities are endless.         

          

  

   

     

Introduction to The Respiratory System

The respiratory system is responsible for providing oxygen required for body cells. It has the function of carrying carbon dioxide waste. The muscular and skeletal systems are tasked with movements that make breathing possible. This is an efficient structured organ system, yet it has its weaknesses. The air can contain various particles, microbes, or allergens that can be hazardous to health. The respiratory system has delicate structures that are susceptible to severe damage. Respiratory disorders are among the most common of illnesses. Air that is inhaled transports to the trachea through the bronchi reaching the lungs. There are a total of two lungs in the human body. Each lung contains bronchioles, which are tube like in structure. These pipe structures cluster in alveoli The gases migrate the alveolar walls both to and from blood vessels. The intercostal  muscles as well as the diaphragm beneath the lungs allow for air to be drawn in and out. This happens in a particular time interval. Air enters through the nostrils and thus begins the process of respiratory function.
    The respiratory system contains both a upper and lower tract. The upper tract contains the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx. These networks of passages warm, filter, and humidify outgoing air. The lower respiratory tract houses the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. Breathing requires respiratory reflexes. The brain's respiratory centers.Receptors must process the sensory information arriving that are sensitive to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acidity levels present in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. Receptors are also delivering information to blood pressure receptors and stretch receptors in the lungs. This either lets it be known their is pain or nasal irritation. Breathing pattern can change in rate depending on the behavior of receptors. This can prevent the lungs from over inflating or act as a defense mechanism against harmful matter in the air. Breathing is a subconscious action, but emotions can change it. Feeling nervous could cause a person to breath fast than when they were calm. The common respiratory reflexes include coughing, sneezing, yawning, and hiccups.

These reflexes are reactions to the environment.  Coughing forcefully releases air from the lungs in order to clear the airways. Cough receptors will become irritated by inhaled particles or large amounts of mucus. Once the trachea and bronchi are cleared, normal function resumes. The cough happens with a deep breath causing the glottis to close entrapping the air in  the lungs. The diaphragm including other muscles contract. The result is pressure causes the glottis to open once more forcing out the contaminants. Mucus droplets aid in the elimination of bacteria and other particles. Coughing acts as a defense against foreign air born material that could be harmful to the body. Sneezing also acts in a similar manner. When irritation occurs from inhaled particles, odors, or infection large amounts of inhalation happen. The glottis closes while a person's eyes will close as well.  Contraction then causes air to be expelled from the nose and mouth. Yawning is involuntary and is learned even during embryonic development. It is a common trait among all vertebrate animals. When blood levels are showing an increase in carbon dioxide more oxygen in dawn into the lungs. Blood oxygen levels increase. Yawning may also allow for blood to cool while passing through the brain. 

Another know respiratory reflex are hiccups. These are nothing more than involuntary contractions from diaphragm. Hiccups could be evidence of the human evolutionary past when our early amphibious ancestors went between land and water. The glottis closing would have stopped water from going into the lungs and push it out through gills. A human fetus even hiccups and contains gill like structures. Surrounded by amniotic fluid  this helps protect the lungs from fluid getting inside of them. Hiccups are primarily induced by nerve activity that controls the muscle in the diaphragm.  

      The respiratory system  has specific structures that have various functions. The larynx has the role of securing the entrance to the trachea and housing the vocal cords. The larynx consists of nine pieces of cartilage. This includes thyroid, cricoid, epiglottis, arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform cartilages. The larynx is situated between the pharynx and trachea. The thyroid cartilage forms a mound beneath the skin of the neck. This is known as the laryngeal prominence ( Adam's apple ). This structure is more pronounced in men than in women. The cartilage is secured by support from muscles and ligaments. The hyoid bone acts as an anchor for the muscles supporting the larynx.Internally the larynx is a hollow chamber and this enables air to enter during breathing. The cartilage will tilt moving vocal cords producing speech.  What appears to be a simple process relies on a network of various structures. Branchioles  and air sacs are also important to the respiratory system. There are two main bronchi which are subdivided in the lungs. The right bronchus forms three secondary bronchi. The left bronchus only forms two. Gas exchange happens at the terminal point. 

    The pleural sacs are found as enclosed shields  lungs. They have two layers which contain parietal wall and a visceral wall. The visceral wall is located  beneath the lung, while the parietal is attached to the chest of the wall. This explains why the lungs are able to slide over the chest wall during breathing. The thin layer of lubricated fluid  that divides pluera enables this process without harm to the lungs. The diaphragm dome like in shape is a muscle that separates the chest and the abdomen. Along with the intercostal muscles these are the primary muscles that contribute to breathing. This reduces pressure on the thoracic cavity. This means the lungs have the ability to expand downward. The lower respiratory system has a lining which is a moist mucus membrane. Bronchi lined with columar epithelium are contributors to moving particles out of the lungs. The cilia of the columar epithelium act as an remover of possibly hazardous substances. This is an example of internal protection, but the body's twelve ribs act as a shield for the lungs and heart. The lungs are the most recognizable structures of the respiratory system. The human body has a total of two, which are cone structured in appearance. There is a difference between the right and left lung. The right lung as three lobes, while the left has only two. This allows for room for the heart. The right lung is only a little bit larger in comparison and averages 60% of lung volume. The pharynx is a structure that allows moistened air to pass through the throat. There are also other auxiliary structures that  collaborate in air passage. The nasopharynx enables the passage of air. Both the oropharynx and laryngopharynx  permit safe passage for food and various fluids. The concha present in the nasal cavity from the etmoid bone. This forms three ledges, which capture air borne particles and can increase the surface area of the naval cavity. 

    The respiratory system also enables phonation. This is the process of  an individual to produce speech sounds form the vocal cords. The vocal cords are made from two folds of mucus membrane stretched horizontally across the larynx. It is connected to thyroid cartilage in the front. The arytenoid cartilages are the support in the back. When the vocal cords close when  air coming through during exhalation, this causes vibration . The result is sound produced. These are just a few of the basic structures of the respiratory system. 

     The lungs are on the largest organs in the body and central part of the respiratory system. The lungs contain alveoli, which are clump like structures. Elastic and thin walled they have the shape of grapes. Macrophages are present on the outer surfaces. Macrophages are white blood cells responsible for protecting against air borne irritants. The alveoli also have  networks of capillaries. When oxygen comes through it gets into the blood by diffusion. Then it travels through the alveolar and capillary walls. Carbon dioxide diffuses another way from the blood into the alveoli. There is a total of 300 million alveoli present in the lungs. They provide a huge surface area  for gas exchange. It is estimated to be forty times greater than the body's surface. The pulmonary venule will take fresh high  oxygen blood, while the pulmonary arteriole gives used low oxygen blood.  The apex of the lung is the upper point, which projects just above the clavicle. The left primary bronchus is narrower and longer compared to the lobar bronchus. The lobar bronchus has to form one of two air ways. The segmental bronchus has to aerate the broncopulmonary segment. The pulmonary arteries must bring deoxygenated blood from the heart. The pulmonary veins have to send oxygenated blood to the heart. There is a total 30,000 terminal bronchioles in each lung. They branch out into either two or more respiratory bronchioles. The lungs are hard at work being the area of  gas exchange. 

         Oxygen is drawn into the body through the lungs. The process of gas exchange in the lungs starts with oxygen from the air dissolving into fluid lining  in the alveolus. It will then disperse through the blood capillary wall and alveolar wall. Oxygen  then shall enter the blood plasma and will bond with hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide will then diffuse from blood plasma and goes in air in the alveolus. The red oxygenated blood makes the journey through the aorta by pathway of the arteries reaching the body's tissues. Thin capillaries then are required to transport oxygenated blood. The newly delivered red blood cells the bind to  the body of each cell. The oxygen will  leave hemoglobin in the red blood cells. The diffusion will result in hemoglobin in the blood capillary walls and into the tissue cells. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the tissues of the cells, wall of the blood capillary and ends with going into the blood plasma.  

Cellular respiration also occurs in the human body. Blood sugar known as glucose is the body's primary energy source. Cellular respiration happens in every body cell when oxygen interacts with glucose. The result becomes energy released in chemical form. The product made form this is carbon dioxide and water which is called metabolic water. There is a difference in aerobic capacity between the sexes. Men have on average larger lungs and hearts, which give them higher aerobic capacity. Besides that there is no difference in the respiratory system between men and women. 

       Breathing is essential to organisms with a respiratory system. Bodily respiration is tasked with taking in air capturing oxygen, while removing used air and waste product through carbon dioxide. The actual movement depends on pressure in the lungs and the atmospheric pressure of the environment. The pressure differences occur due to an expanding chest and muscular action. The sternocledomastoid is a muscle that has to pull the clavicle and sternum upwards to enlarge the chest cavity. The pectoralis minor pulls the third. fourth, and fifth ribs in the body. The scalenes must elevate the upper ribs. Other muscles such as the external intercostals also contribute. The need to breath is dictated by the function of the nervous system. The brain stem generates responses on how best to regulate breathing. Breathing can alter the volume of the thoracic cavity. The lungs can become larger depending on inhalation or exhalation. Inhalation requires the use diaphragm, ribs, external intercostals and the sternum. This can enable the chest to expand, while the lungs can be stretched. Exhalation seems more passive in labor and action. The lungs recoil when the diaphragm, intercostals, and other muscles come to a state of relaxation. Abdominal pressure moves the diaphragm upward in the process. The lungs are then compressed to a point beyond the usual resting volume. Pressure can either be classified as either positive or negative. Negative pressure involves lung volume increasing as air pressure decreases. This means atmospheric pressure which is external is higher resulting in air being sucked in . Condition for positive pressure involve lung volume decreasing when exhalation occurs. Pressure is built up in the lungs causing air to be pushed out. This explains why air come out through the mouth and nose. This is the basic function of the respiratory system. Like other organ system it collaborates with other to the biophysical machine known as the human body.  

References 

Brewer, Sarah. The Human Body A Visual Guide To Anatomy. London: Quercus, 2012.     

  

Parker, Steve. The Human Body Book. New York : DK Publishing, 2013. 

The evolving story of human evolution | Melanie Chang | TEDxVictoria

Melanie Chang discusses the history and science of 8 million years of human evolution. Humanity is the last of its species. Humans have only been around 200,000 years. Neanderthals went extinct and homo sapiens were the lone survivors. Paleoanthropology has to be reliant on field work and fossils. It is not possible to revive neanderthals and study them in a natural history context. However, genetics has allowed some breakthroughs. Mitochondrial DNA provides some clues. Scientists in Germany found out that humans contain 1 to 4 % neanderthal DNA. This indicates there was possible cross breeding. Human are still evolving and this has been proven to be fact. evolution will no longer be just a theory, but a fact like the universal law of gravitation. There is resistance to new discoveries with the most religious thinking human evolution is not possible. Doubtless of conviction, facts are true whether you like them or not. The story of human evolution is still being revealed. The puzzle will only be complete when the common genetic ancestor is discovered for all primates.   

Carl Sagan 1966 CBS Interview on the Possibilities of Extraterrestrial Life

This is a CBS interview with Carl Sagan produced in 1966. The astronomer became a popular figure with the PBS program Cosmos and his books. Sagan was in many ways ahead of his time, figuring out the nature of Venus' atmosphere and believing extraterrestrial life was a possibility. To date there are several Earth like planets that have been discovered outside the Solar System. Humanity has not been able to reach these planets for direct observation, but it could be teeming with life. There opens  a new opportunity for expansion in biology. Astrobiology will become more important as humanity explores and finds more organisms in space.